American Men’s and Women’s Beliefs about Gender Discrimination: For Men, It’s Not Quite a Zero-Sum Game
Keywords:
Downloads
Abstract
We surveyed Americans regarding their beliefs about gender discrimination over the past several decades. Men and women agreed that women faced much more discrimination than men in the past, and they agreed that the discrimination gap between men and women has narrowed in recent years. However, men perceived the gap as narrower than women did at all time periods, and reported that there is little difference today in the amount of gender discrimination women and men face. Political ideology moderated these beliefs such that conservative men were most likely to report that anti-Man bias now equals or exceeds anti-Woman bias. Similar to recent research on beliefs about racism, these findings suggest that groups which differ historically in status and power exhibit perceptual differences regarding the changing nature of discrimination.Downloads
References
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions.
Google Scholar CrossrefThousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Google Scholar CrossrefAltemeyer, B. (1998). The 20-item RWA scale. Unpublished manuscript.
Google Scholar CrossrefAron, A., Aron, E. N., Tudor, M., & Nelson, G. (1991). Close relationships as including other in
Google Scholar Crossrefthe self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(2), 241-253.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.241
Google Scholar CrossrefAxelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation. New York: Basic Books.
Google Scholar CrossrefBarreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2005). The perils of political correctness: Men’s and women’s
Google Scholar Crossrefresponses to old-fashioned and modern sexist views. Social Psychology Quarterly, 68(1),
Google Scholar Crossref-88. doi:10.1177/019027250506800106
Google Scholar CrossrefBianchi, S. M., Robinson, J. P., & Milkie, M. A. (2006). Changing rhythms of American family
Google Scholar Crossreflife. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Google Scholar CrossrefBosker, B. (2012). Fortune 500 list boasts more female CEOs than ever before. Retrieved from
Google Scholar Crossrefhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/07/fortune-500-female-ceos_n_1495734.html
Google Scholar CrossrefBosson, J. K., & Vandello, J. A. (2011). Precarious manhood and its links to action and
Google Scholar Crossrefaggression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(2), 82-86.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1177/0963721411402669
Google Scholar CrossrefBuhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source
Google Scholar Crossrefof inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3-5. doi:10.1177/1745691610393980
Google Scholar CrossrefBureau of Labor Statistics (2008). Changes in women’s labor force participation in the 20th
Google Scholar Crossrefcentury. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2000/feb/wk3/art03.htm
Google Scholar CrossrefBureau of Labor Statistics (2011). Women in the labor force: A databook. Retrieved from:
Google Scholar Crossrefhttp://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook-2011.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefCampbell, D. T. (1965). Ethnocentric and other altruistic motives. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska
Google Scholar CrossrefSymposium on Motivation (pp. 283-311). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Google Scholar CrossrefCBS News (2009). Poll: Women’s movement worthwhile. Retrieved from
Google Scholar Crossrefhttp://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/22/opinion/polls/main965224.shtml
Google Scholar CrossrefCenter for American Women and Politics (2012). Women in elective office 2012. Retrieved from
Google Scholar Crossrefhttp://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/fast_facts/levels_of_office/documents/elective.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefCohen, J. (1983). The cost of dichotomization. Applied Psychological Measurement, 7(3), 249-
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1177/014662168300700301
Google Scholar CrossrefChristopher, A. N., & Mull, M. S. (2006). Conservative ideology and ambivalent sexism.
Google Scholar CrossrefPsychology of Women Quarterly, 30(2), 223-230. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00284.x
Google Scholar CrossrefDepartment of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2010). The condition of
Google Scholar CrossrefEducation 2010, Table A-23-2 (NCES 2010-028). Retrieved from
Google Scholar Crossrefhttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs2010/2010028.pdf
Google Scholar CrossrefEagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women
Google Scholar Crossrefand men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735-754.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.735
Google Scholar CrossrefEibach, R. P., & Ehrlinger, J. (2006). Reference points in men’s and women’s judgments of
Google Scholar Crossrefprogress toward gender equality. Sex Roles, 63, 882-893. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9846-7
Google Scholar CrossrefFarley, R., & Frey, W. H. (1994). Changes in the segregation of Whites from Blacks during the
Google Scholar Crossrefs: Small steps toward a more integrated society. American Sociological
Google Scholar CrossrefReview, 59(1), 23-45. doi:10.2307/2096131
Google Scholar CrossrefFiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, G.
Google Scholar CrossrefLindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology, Vols. 1 and 2 (4th ed.) (pp. 357-411).
Google Scholar CrossrefNew York: McGraw-Hill.
Google Scholar CrossrefGibson, J. W. (1994). Warrior dreams: Paramilitary culture in post-Vietnam America. New
Google Scholar CrossrefYork: Hill and Wang.
Google Scholar CrossrefGlaeser, E. L., & Vigdor, J. L. (2001). Racial segregation in the 2000 Census: Promising news.
Google Scholar CrossrefBrookings Institution Survey Series. Washington: Brookings Institution.
Google Scholar CrossrefGlick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and
Google Scholar Crossrefbenevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491-512. doi:10.
Google Scholar Crossref/0022-3514.70.3.491
Google Scholar CrossrefGlick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2011). Ambivalent sexism revisited. Psychology of Women Quarterly,
Google Scholar Crossref(3), 530-535. doi:10.1177/0361684311414832
Google Scholar CrossrefGrote, N. K., Naylor, K. E., & Clark, M. S. (2002). Perceiving the division of family work to be
Google Scholar Crossrefunfair: Do social comparisons, enjoyment, and competence matter? Journal of Family
Google Scholar CrossrefPsychology, 16(4), 510-522. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.510
Google Scholar CrossrefHesse-Biber, S. N., & Carter, G. L. (2005). Working women in America: Split dreams. New
Google Scholar CrossrefYork: Oxford University Press.
Google Scholar CrossrefHochschild, J. (1995). Facing up to the American dream: Race, class, and the soul of the nation.
Google Scholar CrossrefPrinceton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Google Scholar CrossrefJost, J. T., Federico, C. M., & Napier, J. L. (2009). Political ideology: Its structure, functions,
Google Scholar Crossrefand elective affinities. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 307-337.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600
Google Scholar CrossrefJost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Political conservatism as
Google Scholar Crossrefmotivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 339-375. doi:10.1037/0033-
Google Scholar Crossref129.3.339
Google Scholar CrossrefJost, J. T., Nosek, B. A., & Gosling, S. D. (2008). Ideology: Its resurgence in social, personality,
Google Scholar Crossrefand political psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(2), 126-136.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00070.x
Google Scholar CrossrefKelley, H. H., & Thibaut, J. W. (1978). Interpersonal relations: A theory of interdependence.
Google Scholar CrossrefNew York: Wiley.
Google Scholar CrossrefKluegel, J. R., & Smith, E. R. (1986). Beliefs about inequality: Americans’ views of what is and
Google Scholar Crossrefwhat ought to be. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
Google Scholar CrossrefKunda, Z. (1999). Social cognition: Making sense of people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Google Scholar CrossrefMatthews, M., Levin, S., & Sidanius, J. (2009). A longitudinal test of the model of political
Google Scholar Crossrefconservatism as motivated social cognition. Political Psychology, 30(6), 921-936.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00733.x
Google Scholar CrossrefNational Election Survey (1982). Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research.
Google Scholar CrossrefAnn Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Google Scholar CrossrefNorton, M. I., & Sommers, S. R. (2011). Whites see racism as a zero-sum game that they are
Google Scholar Crossrefnow losing. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 215-218.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1177/1745691611406922
Google Scholar CrossrefPeter, K., & Horn, L. (2005). Gender differences in participation and completion of
Google Scholar Crossrefundergraduate education and how they have changed over time. National Center for
Google Scholar CrossrefEducation Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/das/epubs/2005169/index.asp.
Google Scholar CrossrefPettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.
Google Scholar CrossrefJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751-783. doi:10.1037/0022-
Google Scholar Crossref90.5.751
Google Scholar CrossrefPleck, J. H., & Masciadrelli, B. P. (2003). Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and
Google Scholar Crossrefconsequences. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed.).
Google Scholar CrossrefNew York: John Wiley.
Google Scholar CrossrefPratto, F., Liu, J. H., Levin, S., Sidanius, J., Shih, M., Bachrach, H., & Hegarty, P. (2000). Social
Google Scholar Crossrefdominance orientation and the legitimization of inequality across cultures. Journal of
Google Scholar CrossrefCross-Cultural Psychology, 31(3), 369-409. doi:10.1177/0022022100031003005
Google Scholar CrossrefPratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M. & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A
Google Scholar Crossrefpersonality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and
Google Scholar CrossrefSocial Psychology, 67(4), 741-763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.998
Google Scholar CrossrefRobinson, J. P., & Godbey, G. (1999). Time for life: The surprising ways Americans use their
Google Scholar Crossreftime. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
Google Scholar CrossrefShelton, B. A., & John, D. (1996). The division of household labor. Annual Review of Sociology,
Google Scholar Crossref, 299-322.
Google Scholar CrossrefSidanius, J., Van Laar, C., Levin, S., & Sinclair, S. (2004). Ethnic enclaves and the dynamics of
Google Scholar Crossrefsocial identity on the college campus: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of
Google Scholar CrossrefPersonality and Social Psychology, 87, 96-110. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.96
Google Scholar CrossrefSmith, H. J., Pettigrew, T. F., Pippin, G. M., & Bialosiewicz, S. (2012). Relative deprivation: A
Google Scholar Crossreftheoretical and meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16,
Google Scholar Crossref-232. doi:10.1177/1088868311430825
Google Scholar CrossrefSwim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned
Google Scholar Crossrefand modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 199-214.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199
Google Scholar CrossrefSwim, J. K., & Cohen, L. L. (1997). Overt, covert, and subtle sexism: A comparison between the
Google Scholar CrossrefAttitudes Toward Women and Modern Sexism Scales. Psychology of Women
Google Scholar CrossrefQuarterly, 21(1), 103-118. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x
Google Scholar CrossrefTajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S.
Google Scholar CrossrefWorchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago:
Google Scholar CrossrefNelson.
Google Scholar CrossrefU.S. Census Bureau (2012). Historical income tables: People. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/.
Google Scholar CrossrefVandello, J. A., Bosson, J. K., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. M., & Weaver, J. R. (2008). Precarious
Google Scholar Crossrefmanhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6), 1325-1339.
Google Scholar Crossrefdoi:10.1037/a0012453
Google Scholar CrossrefWalker, I., & Pettigrew, T. F. (1984). Relative deprivation theory: An overview and conceptual
Google Scholar Crossrefcritique. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23(4), 301-310. doi:10.1111/j.2044-
Google Scholar Crossref1984.tb00645.x
Google Scholar CrossrefDownloads
Published
Almetric
Dimensions
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
All articles are published under Creative Commons copyright (CC BY). Authors hold the copyright and retain publishing rights without restrictions, but authors allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute, and/or copy articles as the original source is cited.
