The Importance of Prebiotics in Functional Foods and Clinical Practice

Abstract

Prebiotics are substances that can promote the growth of beneficial microorganisms, mainly in the intestinal tract, and will modify the colonic microbiota. The following health benefits are attributed to prebiotics: relief from poor digestion of lactose, increased resistance to bacterial infection, better immune response and possible protection against cancer, reduction of the risk of diseases such as intestinal disease, cardiovascular disease, non-insulin dependent diabetes, obesity and osteoporosis. This article presents a discussion of prebiotics, with descriptions of the concepts and its use in clinical practice, and a review of some recent research showing the benefits that these ingredients provide to human health and providing data on the recommended intakes for consumption.

Share and Cite:

V. Sousa, E. Santos and V. Sgarbieri, "The Importance of Prebiotics in Functional Foods and Clinical Practice," Food and Nutrition Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 2, 2011, pp. 133-144. doi: 10.4236/fns.2011.22019.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] C. M. Hasler, “Functional Foods: Their Role in Disease in: Developing New Food Products for a Changing Prevention and Health Promotion,” Food Technology, Vol. 52, No. 2, 1998, pp. 57-62.
[2] N. Kaur and A. K. Gupta, “Applications of Inulin and Oligofructose in Health and Nutrition,” Journal of Bioscience, Vol. 27, No. 7, 2002, pp. 703-714. doi:10.1007/BF02708379
[3] D. F. C. Anjo, “Alimentos Funcionais em Angiologia e Cirurgia Vascular,” Jornal Vascular Brasileiro, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2004, pp. 431-437.
[4] M. H. Saier Jr. and N. M. Mansour, “Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Health,” Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2005, pp. 22-25. doi:10.1159/000090345
[5] D. Bosscher, J. Loo-Van and A. Franck, “Inulin and Oligofructose as Prebiotics in the Prevention of Intestinal Infections and Diseases,” Nutrition Research Reviews, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2006, pp. 216-226. doi:10.1017/S0954422407249686
[6] J. Huebner, R. L. Wehling and R. L. Hutkins, “Functional Activity of Commercial Prebiotics,” International Dairy Journal, Vol. 17, No.7, 2007, pp. 770-775. doi:10.1016/j.idairyj.2006.10.006
[7] M. B. Roberfroid, “Prebiotics: The Concept Revisited,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 137, No. 3, 2007, pp. 830S-837S.
[8] M. R. Urgell, A. S. Orleans and M. R. P. Seuma, “La Importancia de los Ingredientes Funcionales en las Leches y Cereales Infantiles,” Nutricion Hospitalaria, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2005, pp.135-146.
[9] Y. C. Cao and A. F. Fernandez, “Probioticos y Salud: Una Reflexion Necesaria,” Revista Cubana Medicina General Integrada, Vol. 21, No. 3-4, 2005, pp. 3-4.
[10] R. P. Quera, E. Quigley and A. M. S. Madrid, “El rol de los Prebioticos, Probioticos y Simbioticos en Gastroenterologia,” Gastroenterology Latinoamerican, Vol. 16, No. 3, 2005, pp. 218-228.
[11] V. C. Sgarbieri and M. T. B. Pacheco, “Alimentos Funcionais Fisiologicos,” Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1-2, 1999, pp. 7-19.
[12] L. P. Silva and J .L. Nornberg, “Prebioticos na Nutricao de nao Ruminantes,” Ciencia Rural, Vol. 33, No. 5, 2003, pp. 983-990.
[13] G. R. Gibson and R. Fuller “Aspects of In Vitro and In Vivo Research Approaches Directed toward Identifying Probiotics and Prebiotics for Human Use,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 130, No. 2, 2000, pp. 391S- 395S.
[14] T. S. Manning and G. R. Gibson, “Prebiotics,” Best Practice and Research Clinical Gastroenterology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2004, pp. 287-298. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2003.10.008
[15] P. R. Arabbi, “Alimentos Funcionais: Aspectos Gerais,” Nutrire, Vol. 21, No. 6, 2001, pp. 87-102.
[16] A. C. Ouwehand, M. Derrien, W. de Vos, K. Tiihonen and N. Rautonen, “Prebiotics and Other Microbial Substrates for Gut Functionality,” Current Opinion in Biotechnology, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2005, pp. 212-217. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2005.01.007
[17] S. Macfarlane, G. T. Macfarlane and J. H. Cummings, “Review Article: Prebiotics in the Gastrointestinal Tract,” Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapies, Vol. 24, No. 5, 2006, pp. 701-714. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.03042.x
[18] M. A. Losada and T. Olleros, “Towards a Healthier Diet for the Colon: The Influence of Fructooligosaccharides and Lactobacilli on Intestinal Health,” Nutrition Research, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2002, pp. 71-84. doi:10.1016/S0271-5317(01)00395-5
[19] X. Wang and G. R. Gibson, “Effects of the In Vitro Fermentation of Oligofructose and Inulin by Bacteria Growing in the Human Large Intestine,” Journal of Applied Bacteriology, Vol. 75, No. 4, 1993, pp. 373-380.
[20] G. R. Gibson and M. B. Roberfroid, “Dietary Modulation of the Human Colonic Microbiota-introducing the Concept of Prebiotics,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 125, No. 6, 1995, pp. 1401-1412.
[21] S. I. Mussatto and I. M. Mancilha, “Non-digestible Oligosaccharides: A Review,” Carbohydrate Polimers, Vol. 68, No. 3, 2007, pp. 587-597. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.12.011
[22] A. Tamine, V. Marshall and R. Robinson, “Microbiological and Technological Aspects of Milks Fermented by Bifidobacteria,” Journal of Dairy Research, Vol. 62, No. 1, 1995, pp. 151-187. doi:10.1017/S002202990003377X
[23] J. E. Spiegel, R. Rose, P. Karabell, V. H. Frankos and D. F. Schmitt, “Safety and Benefits of Fructooligosaccharides as Food Ingredients,” Food Technology, Vol. 48, No.1, 1994, pp.85-89.
[24] I. G. Carabin and W. G. Flamm, “Evaluation of Safety of Inulin and Oligofructose as Dietary Fiber,” Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, Vol. 30, No. 3, 1999, pp. 268-282. doi:10.1006/rtph.1999.1349
[25] V. C. Borges, “Impacto dos Alimentos Para a Saude,” Nutricao em Pauta, No. 48, 2001, pp. 17-18.
[26] G. Flamm, W. Glinsmann, D. Kritchevsky, L. Prosky and M. B. Roberfroid, “Inulin and Oligofructose as Dietary Fiber: A Review of the Evidence,” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 41, No. 5, 2001, pp. 353-362. doi:10.1080/20014091091841
[27] M. B. Roberfroid, “Dietary Fiber, Inulin, and Oligofructose: A Review Comparing Their Physiological Effects,” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 33, No. 2, 1993, pp. 103-148. doi:10.1080/10408399309527616
[28] V. C. Borges, “Oligassacarideos x Fibras Alimentares,” Revista Brasileira de Nutricao Clinica, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1997, pp. 161-164.
[29] L. M. L. Passos and Y. K. Park, “Fructooligosaccharides: Implications in Human Health Being and Use in Foods,” Ciencia Rural, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2003, pp. 385-390.
[30] K. M. Tuohy, G. C. M. Rouzaud, W. M. Bruck and G. R. Gibson, “Modulation of the Human Gut Microflora towards Improved Health Using Prebiotics - Assessment of Efficacy,” Current Pharmaceutical Design, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2005, pp. 75-90. doi:10.2174/1381612053382331
[31] G. R. Gibson, C. L. Willis and J. Van Loo, “Non-digestible Oligosaccharides and Bifidobacteria Implications for Health,” International Sugar Journal, Vol. 96, No. 1150, 1994, pp. 381-387.
[32] M. C. O. Hauly and J. A. Moscatto, “Inulin and Oligofructosis: A Review about Functional Properties, Prebiotic Effects and Importance for Food Industry,” Semina: Ciencias Exatas e Tecnologicas, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2002, pp. 105-118.
[33] G. P. Costa and D. L. Waitzberg, “Efeitos Beneficos dos Frutooligossacarideos na Saude Humana,” Revista Brasileira de Medicina, Vol. 1, No. 7, 1997, pp. 6-7.
[34] P. M. Lima, “FOS em Nutricao Enteral,” Revista Qualidade em Alimentacao - Nutricao, Vol. 4, No. 15, 2003, pp. 26-27.
[35] T. Tokunaga, T. Oku and N. Hosya, “Utilization and Excretion of a New Sweetener Fructooligosaccharide (Neosugar) in Rats,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 119, No. 4, 1989, pp. 553-559.
[36] N. C. Carpita, J. Kamabus and T. L. Housley, “Linkage Structure of Fructans and Fructan Oligomers from Triticum Astivum and Fistuca Arundinaceae Leaves,” Journal of Plant Physiology, Vol. 134, No. 2, 1989, pp. 162-168.
[37] P. P. Rutherford and R. Whittle, “The Carbohydrate Composition of Onions during Long Term Cold Storage,” Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, Vol. 57, No. 3, 1982, pp. 349-356.
[38] M. Suzuki and J. A. Cutclife, “Fructan in Onion Bulbs in Relation to Storage Life,” Canadian Journal of Plant Science, Vol. 69, No. 4, 1989, pp.1327-1333. doi:10.4141/cjps89-160
[39] J. van Loo, P. Coussement, L. Deleenheer, H. Hoebregs and G. Smits, “On the Presence of Inulin and Oligofructose as Natural Ingredients in the Western Diet,” Critical Reviews in Food Science Nutrition, Vol. 35, No. 6, 1995, pp. 525-552.
[40] A. J. Moshfegh, J. E. Friday, J. P. Goldman and J. K. C. Ahuja, “Presence of Inulin and Oligofructose in Diets of Americans,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 129, No. 7, 1999, pp. 1407-1411.
[41] H. W. Modler, “Bifidogenic Factors – Sources, Metabolism and Applications,” International Dairy Journal, Vol. 4, No. 5, 1994, pp. 383-407. doi:10.1016/0958-6946(94)90055-8
[42] M. Price, R. Schwartz and H. Hoyt, “Evaluation and Characteristics of Currently Available Inulin,” Investigative Urology, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1978, pp. 13-14.
[43] P. A. Coussement, “Inulin and Oligofructose: Safe Intakes and Legal Status,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 129, No. 7, 1999, pp. 1412-1417.
[44] W. H. Holzapfel and U. Schillinger, “Introduction to Pre- and Probiotics,” Food Research International, Vol. 35, No. 2-3, 2002, pp. 109-116. doi:10.1016/S0963-9969(01)00171-5
[45] Z. Jie, L. Bang-Yao, X. Ming-Jie, L. Hai-Wei, Z. Zu-Kang, W. Ting-Song and S. A. Craig, “Studies on the Effects of Polydextrose Intake on Physiologic Functions in Chinese People,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 72, No. 6, 2000, pp. 1503-1509.
[46] O. Murphy, “Non-polyol Low-digestible Carbohydrates: Food Applications and Functional Benefits,” The British Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 85, No. supplement 1, 2001, pp. S47-S53. doi:10.1079/BJN2000261
[47] M. Yoshioka, Y. Shimomura and M. Suzuki, “Dietary Polydextrose Affects the Large Intestine in Rats,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 124, No. 4, 1994, pp. 539-547.
[48] H. Hara, T. Suzuki and Y. Aoyama, “Ingestion of the Soluble Dietary Fibre, Polydextrose, Increases Calcium Absorption and Bone Mineralization in Normal and Total-gastrectomized Rats,” The British Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 84, No. 5, 2000, pp. 655-661.
[49] Agencia Nacional de Vigilancia Sanitaria (ANVISA). Portaria no 29, de 13 de janeiro de 1998. Aprova o Regulamento Tecnico referente a Alimentos para fins especiais. D.O.U. – Diarios Oficial da Uniao. Poder Executivo. De 30 de marco de 1998. Internet Available: . Assessed in July 25, 2010.
[50] T. Sako, K. Matsumoto and R. Tanaka, “Recent Progress on Research and Applications of Nondigestible Galacto-oligosaccharides,” International Dairy Journal, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1999, pp. 69-80. doi:10.1016/S0958-6946(99)00046-1
[51] . E. Prenosil, E. Stuker and J. R. Bourne, “Formation of Oligosccharides during Enzymatic Lactose Hydrolysis and Their Importance in a Whey Hydrolysis Process: Part II: Experimental,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 30, No. 9, 1987, pp. 1026-1031. doi:10.1002/bit.260300905
[52] R. R. Mahoney, “Galactosyl-oligosaccharide Formation during Lactose Hydrolysis – A Review,” Food Chemistry, Vol. 63, No. 2, 1998, pp. 147-154. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00020-X
[53] I. Y. S. Rustom, M. I. Foda and M. H. L. Leiva, “Formation of Oligosaccharides from Whey UF-permeate by Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Analysis of Factors,” Food Chemistry, Vol. 62, No. 2, 1998, pp. 141-147. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(97)00203-3
[54] M. H. L. Leiva and M. Guzman, “Formation of Oligosaccharides during Enzymic Hydrolysis of Milk Whey Permeates,” Process Biochemistry, Vol. 30, No. 8, 1995, pp. 757-762. doi:10.1016/0032-9592(95)00006-H
[55] D. Roy, L. Daoudi and A. Azaola, “Optimization of Galacto-oligosaccharides Production by Bifidobacterium Infantis RW-8120 Using Response Surface Methodology,” Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 29, No. 5, 2002, pp. 281-285. doi:10.1038/sj.jim.7000319
[56] D. V. Evtuguim, J. L. Tomas, A. M. Silva and C. Pascoal Neto, “Characterization of an Acetylated Heteroxylan from Eucalyptus Globulus Labill,” Carbohydrate Research, Vol. 338, No. 7, 2003, pp. 597-604. doi:10.1016/S0008-6215(02)00529-3
[57] P. Moura, R. Barata, F. Carvalheiro, F. Girio, M. C. Loureiro-Dias and M. P. Esteves, “In Vitro Fermentation of Xylooligosaccharides from Corn Cobs Autohydrolysis by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus Strains,” LWT - Food Science and Technoology, Vol. 40, No. 6, 2007, pp. 963-972.
[58] D. Nabarlatz, A. Ebringerova and D. Montane, “Autohydrolysis of Agricultural Byproducts for the Production of Xylo-oligosaccharides,” Carbohydrate Polymers, Vol. 69, No. 1, 2007, pp. 20-28. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.08.020
[59] G. Garrote, H. Dominguez and J. C. Parajo, “Mild Autohydrolysis: An Environmentally Friendly Technology for Xylooligosaccharide Production from Wood,” Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Vol. 74, No. 11, 1999, pp.1101-1109. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(199911)74:11<1101::AID-JCTB146>3.0.CO;2-M
[60] H. Nakano, “Recent Japanese Development in the Enzymatic Production and Application of Oligosaccharides,” Presented at the Seminar on Enzyme and Bacterial Technology, 1998, Campinas. Japan International Cooperation Agency (s.d).
[61] J. C. Parajo, G. Garrote, J. M. Cruz and H. Dominguez, “Production of Xylooligosaccharides by Autohydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Materials,” Trends in Food Science and Technology, Vol. 15, No. 3-4, 2004, pp. 115-120. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2003.09.009
[62] C. Hsu, J. W. Liao, Y. C. Chung, C. P. Hsieh and Y. C. Chan, “Xylooligosaccharides and Frutooligosaccharides Affect the Intestinal Microbiota and Precancerous Colonic Lesion Development in Rats,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 134, No. 6, 2004, pp. 1523-1528.
[63] I. Tateyama, K. Hashii, I. Johno, T. Iino, K. Hirai, Y. Suwa and Y. Kiso, “Effect of Xylooligosaccharide Intake on Severe Constipation in Pregnant Women,” Journal of Nutrition Science Vitaminology, Vol. 51, No. 6, 2005, pp. 445-448.
[64] M. K. Bhat, “Oligossaccharides as Functional Food Ingredients and Their Role in Improving the Nutritional Quality of Human Food and Health,” Recent Research Developments Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 2, 1998, pp. 787-802.
[65] H. Tomomatsu, “Health Effects of Oligosaccharides,” Food Technology, Vol. 48, No. 10, 1994, pp. 61-65.
[66] R. Nagendra, S. Viswanatha, S. Arun Kumar, B. Krishna Murthy and S. Venkat Rao, “Effect of Feeding Milk Formula Containing Lactulose to Infants on Faecal Bifidobacterial Flora,” Nutrition Research, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1995, pp. 15-24. doi:10.1016/0271-5317(95)91649-W
[67] C. Schumann, “Medical, Nutritional and Technological Properties of Lactulose. An Update,” European Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 41, No. supplement 1, 2002, pp. 17-25. doi:10.1007/s00394-002-1103-6
[68] T. Oku, “Special Physiological Functions of Newly Developed Mono and Oligosaccharides,” In: I. Goldberg, Ed., Functional Foods, Chapman and Hall, New York, 1994, pp. 202-218.
[69] J. N. Young, “Developments in Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics,” IFT Annual Meeting, Orlando, 1997, pp. 93-97.
[70] S. Sherlock and J. Dooley, “Hepatic Encephalopathy,” In: S. Sherlock and J. Dooley, Eds., Disease of the Liver and Biliary System, 11a ed., Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2002, pp. 93-110.
[71] Vademecum Hospitalar. Lactulose Generis. Internet Available:
[72] D. I. A. Pereira and G. R. Gibson, “Effects of Consumption of Probiotics and Prebiotics on Serum Lipid Levels in Humans,” Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2002, pp. 259-281. doi:10.1080/10409230290771519
[73] C. Coundray, C. Demigne and Y. Rayssiguier, “Effects of Dietary Fiber on Magnesium Absorption in Animals and Humans,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 133, No. 1, 2003, pp. 1-4.
[74] J. H. Cummings, G. T. MacFarlane and H. Englyst, “Prebiotic Digestion and Fermentation,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 73, No. 2, 2001, pp. 415-420.
[75] H. Hidaka, T. Eida, T. Takizawa, T. Tokunaga and Y. Tashiro, “Effects of Fructooligosaccharides on Intestinal Flora and Human Health,” Bifidobacteria and Microflora, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1986, pp. 37-50.
[76] M. B. Roberfroid, J. A. E. Van Loo and G. R. Gibson, “The Bifidogenic Nature of Chicory Inulin and Its Hydrolysis Products,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 128, No. 1, 1998, pp. 11-19.
[77] Y. Bouhnik, “Effects of Fructooligosaccharides Ingestion on Fecal Bifidobacteria and Selected Metabolic Indexes of Colon Carcinogenesis in Healthy Humans,” Nutrition and Cancer, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1996, pp. 21-29. doi:10.1080/01635589609514459
[78] M. B. Roberfroid, “Functional Food Concept and Its Application to Prebiotics,” Digestive and Liver Disease, Vol. 34, No. supplement 2, 2002, pp. 105-110. doi:10.1016/S1590-8658(02)80176-1
[79] N. M. Delzenne, C. Daubioul, A. Neyrinck, M. Lasa and H. S. Taper, “Inulin and oligofructose modulate lipid metabolism in animals: review of biochemical events and future prospects,” British Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 87, No. supplement 2, 2002, pp. S255-S259. doi:10.1079/BJN/2002545
[80] E. Menne, N. Guggenbuhl and M. B. Roberfroid, “Fn-type Chicory Hydrolysate Inulin has a Prebiotic Effect in Humans,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 130, No. 5 , 2000, pp. 1197-1199.
[81] . Oku, “Special Physiological Functions of Newly Developed Mono and Oligosaccharides,” In: I. Goldberg, Functional Foods, Chapman and Hall, New York, 1994, pp. 202-218.
[82] B. Pool-Zobel, J. Van Loo, I. Rowland and M. B. Roberfroid, “Experimental Evidences on the Potential of Prebiotic Fructans to Reduce the Risk of Colon Cancer,” The British Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 87, No. 2, 2002, pp. 273-281.
[83] A. P. Femia, C. Luceri, P. Dolara, A. Giannini, A. Biggeri, M. Salvadori, Y. Clune, K. J. Collins, M. Paglierani and G. Caderni, “Antitumorigenic Activity of the Prebiotic Inulin Enriched with Oligofructose in Combination with the Probiotics Lactobacillus Rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium Lactis on Azoxymethane-Induced Colon Carcinogenesis in Rats,” Carcinogenesis, Vol. 23, No. 11, 2002, pp. 1953-1960. doi:10.1093/carcin/23.11.1953
[84] D. A. de Luis, B. de la Fuente, O. Izaola, R. Conde, S. Gutierrez, M. Morillo and C. Teba Torres, “Randomized Clinical Trial with a Inulin Enriched Cookie on Risk Cardiovascular Factor in Obese Patients,” Nutricion Hospitalaria, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2010, pp. 53-59.
[85] E. F. dos Santos, K. H. Tsuboi, M. R. Araujo, A. C. Ouwehand, N. A. Andreollo and C. K. Miyasaka, “Dietary Polydextrose Increases Calcium Absorption in Normal Rats,” Arquivos Brasileiros de Cirurgia Digestiva, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2009, pp. 201-205.
[86] E. F. dos Santos, K. H. Tsuboi, M. R. Araujo, M. A. Falconi, A. C. Ouwehand, N. A. Andreollo and C. K. Miyasaka, “Ingestion of Polydextrose Increase Iron Absorption in Rats Submitted to Partial Gastrectomy,” Acta Cirurgica Brasileira, Vol. 25, No. 6, 2010.
[87] F. Brouns and C. Vermeer, “Functional Food Ingredients for Reducing the Risks of Osteoporosis,” Trends in Food Science and Technology, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2000, pp. 22-33. doi:10.1016/S0924-2244(99)00052-7
[88] O. Chonan and M. Watanuki, “The Effect of 6’-galactooligosaccharides on Bone Mineralization of Rats Adapted to Different Levels of Dietary Calcium,” International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research, Vol. 66, No. 3, 1996, pp. 244-249.
[89] G. Moro, I. Minoli, M. Mosca, S. Fanaro, J. Jelinek, B. Stahl and G. Boehm, “Dosage-related Bifidogenic Effects of Galacto- and Fructooligosaccharides in Formula-Fed Term Infants,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2002, pp. 291-295. doi:10.1097/00005176-200203000-00014
[90] D. Perez-Conesa, G. Lopez, G. Ros, P. Abellan and R. Hartemink, “Faecal Microbiota Changes with the Consumption of Follow-Up Formulas Containing Bifidobacterium Spp. and/or Galactooligosaccharides by Rats and a Follow-Up Infant Formula Containing Bifidobacterium Spp. by Human Infants,” Journal of Food Science, Vol. 71, No. 1, 2006, pp. M7-M13. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.tb12396.x
[91] P. A. Scholtens, M. S. Alles, J. G. Bindels, E. G. Van der Linde, J. J. Tolboom and J. Knol, “Bifidogenic Effects of Solid Weaning Foods with Added Prebiotic Oligosaccharides: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Vol. 42, No. 5, 2006, pp. 553-559. doi:10.1097/01.mpg.0000221887.28877.c7
[92] E. Bruzzese, M. Volpicelli, F. Salvini, M. Bisceglia, P. Lionetti, M. Cinquetti, G. Iacono and A. Guarino, “Early Administration of GOS/FOS Prevents Intestinal and Respiratory Infections in Infants,” Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Vol. 42, No. 5, 2006, pp. 2-18.
[93] A. M. Bakker-Zierikzee, E. A. Tol, H. Kroes, M. S. Alles, F. J. Kok and J. G. Bindels, “Faecal SIgA Secretion in Infants Fed on Pre- or Probiotic Infant Formula,” Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2006, pp. 134-140. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3038.2005.00370.x
[94] G. Veereman, “Pediatric Applications of Inulin and Oligofructose,” Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 137, No. 11, 2007, pp. 2585S-2589S.
[95] E. A. Westerbeek, R. M. Van Elburg, A. Van den Berg, J. Van den Berg, J. W. R. Twisk, W. P. Fetter and H. N. Lafeber, “Design of a Randomized Controlled Trial on Immune Effects of Acidic and Neutral Oligosaccharides in the Nutrition of Preterm Infants: Carrot Study,” BMC Pediatric, Vol. 8, No. 46, 2008, pp. 1-6.
[96] E. F. Santos, “Effects of Supplementation of the Galactooligosaccharides and Polydextrose on the Calcium and Iron Absorption in Gastrectomized Rats,” Master science dissertation, University of Campinas, Campinas, 2007.
[97] A. Drakoularacou, G. Tzortzis, R. A. Rastall and G. R. Gibson, “A Double-blind, Placebocontrolled, Randomized Human Study Assessing the Capacity of a Novel Galactooligosaccharide Mixture in Reducing Travellers’ Diarrhoea,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 64, No. 2, 2010, pp. 146-152.
[98] K. J. Jeong, I. Y. Park, M. S. Kim and S. C. Kim, “High-level Expression of an Endoxylanase Gene from Bacillus sp. in Bacillus Subtilis DB104 for the Production of Xylobiose from Xylan,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 50, No. 1, 1998, pp.113-118.
[99] R. G. Gibson, “Prebiotics,” Best Practice and Research Clinical Gastroenterology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2004, pp. 287-298.
[100] Y. Suwa, K. Koga, S. Fujikawa, M. Okazaki, T. Irie and T. Nakada, “Bifidobacterium Bifidum Proliferation Promotion Composition Containing Xylooligosaccharide,” USA Patent US 5939309, 1999.
[101] J. M. Campbell, G. C. Fahey Jr. and B. W. Wolf, “Selected Indigestible Oligosaccharides Affect Large Bowel Mass, Cecal and Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acids, pH and Microflora in Rats,” The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 127, No. 1, 1997, pp. 130-136.
[102] K. Imaizumi, Y. Nakatsu, M. Sato, Y. Sedarnawati and M. Sugano, “Effects of Xylooligosaccharides on Blood Scan,” USA Patent US 5939309, 1991. Internet Available: http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5939309.html
[103] M. Okazaki, H. Koda, R. Izumi, S. Fujikawa and N. Matsumoto, “Effect of Xylooligosaccharide on Growth of Intestinal Bacteria and Putrefaction Products,” Journal of Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1991, pp. 41-44.
[104] G. J. Joo, I. K. Rhee, S. O. Kim and S. J. Rhee, “Effect of Dietary Xylooligosaccharide on Indigestion and Retarding Effect of Bile Acid Movement across a Dialysis Membrane,” Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1998, pp. 705-711.
[105] J. Jaskari, P. Kontula, A. Siitonen, H. Jousimies-Somer, T. Mattilasandholm and K. Poutanen, “Oat b-glucan and Xylan Hydrolysates as Selective Substrates for Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus Strains,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 49, No. 2, 1998, pp. 175-181. doi:10.1007/s002530051155
[106] C. E. Rycroft, M. R. Jones, G. R. Gibson and R. A. Rastall, “A Comparative In Vitro Evaluation of the Fermentation Properties of Prebiotic Oligosaccharides,” Journal of Applied Microbiology, Vol. 91, No. 5, 2001, pp. 878-887. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01446.x
[107] Y. Chung, C. Hsu, C. Ko and Y. Chan, “Dietary Intake of Xylooligosaccharides Improves the Intestinal Microbiota, Fecal Moisture, and pH Value in the Elderly,” Nutrition Research, Vol. 27, No. 12, 2007, pp. 756-761. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2007.09.014
[108] H. Makelainen, S. Forssten, M. Saarinen, J. Stowell, N. Rautonen and A. C. Ouwehand. “Xylo-oligosaccharides Enhance the Growth of Bifidobacteria and Bifidobacterium Lactis in a Simulated Colon Model,” Beneficial Microbes, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2010, pp. 81-91. doi:10.3920/BM2009.0025
[109] K. D. Arunachalam, “Role of Bifidobacteria in Nutrition, Medicine and Technology,” Nutrition Research, Vol. 19, No. 10, 1999, pp. 1559-1597. doi:10.1016/S0271-5317(99)00112-8
[110] A. Bezkorovainy, “Probiotics: Determinants of Survival and Growth in the Gut,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 73, No. 2, 2001, pp. 399S-405S.
[111] K. E. Scholz-Ahrens, G. Schaafsma, E. G. H. M. Van den Heuvel and J. Schrezenmeir, “Effects of Prebiotics on Mineral Metabolism,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 73, No. 2, 2001, pp. 459S-464S.
[112] F. Gouveia, “Food Industry: The Path of Innovation and New Products,” Vol. 2, No. 5, 2006, pp. 32-37.

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.