Abstract
The literature relevant to incentive contrast effects is reviewed, with emphasis on the data published since the reviews by Black (1968) and Dunham (1968). Contrary to the evidence available for the earlier reviews, the current literature indicates that positive contrast is a reliable phenomenon. Its occurrence is facilitated by use of a constant delay of reward, use of a long runway, or possibly by a shift while a negative contrast effect, resulting from a previous shift, is still present in the animals’ behavior. Positive contrast also occurs in consummatory behavior when sucrose or saccharin solutions are shifted. Conditions that are ineffective in producing positive contrast are reviewed, as are the effects of numerous variables on both successive and simultaneous contrast. In addition, positive and negative contrast effects resulting from shifts in delay or percentage of reward, contrast resulting from shifts in sucrose, saccharin, or ethanol solutions, contrast in choice behavior, and transsituational contrast are reviewed. The relationship of the data to several theoretical interpretations of contrast is also considered.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Reference Notes
Sparling, D. L., & Capaldi, E. J.The negative contrast effect as a function of trial spacing. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, 1972.
Flaherty, C. F., Becker, H. C., Checke, S., & Kalucki, B.Negative contrast obtained with repeated shots in sucrose concentration. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Capaldi, E. J.Reinforcement level: An expectancy-associative approach to relative reinforcement and nonreinforcement effects. Paper presented at the Arlington Symposium on Learning, Arlington, Texas, 1975.
Spear, N. E. Contrast effects of reinforcer magnitude and within-subject effects of other reinforcement conditions. InEmpirical and. theoretical problems in the analysis of shifts in reinforcement parameters. Symposium presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, 1968.
Flaherty, C. F., Checke, S., & Dodgen, C.Simultaneous gustatory contrast reduced by intervening water consumption. Manuscript in preparation.
References
Amsel, A. Frustrative nonreward In partial reinforcement and discrimination learning.Psychological Review, 1962,69, 306–328.
Amsel, A. Partial reinforcement effects on vigor and persistence. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.),The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press, 1967.
Amsel, A., &Roussell, J. Motivational properties of frustration.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1952,43, 363–368.
Ashioa, S., &Birch, D. The effects of incentive shift as a function of training.Psychonomic Science, 1964,1, 201–202.
Ashton, A. B., Gandelman, R., &Trowill, J. A. Effects of food deprivation upon elation of saccharin drinking following a temporary shift to water.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 5–6. (a)
Ashton, A., Gandelman, R. J., &Trowill, J. A. Effects of reinforcement shifts upon subsequent sucrose consumption.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 7–8. (b)
Ashton, A. B., &Trowill, J. A. Effects of reinforcement shifts upon lick rate.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 8–10.
Atrens, D. M., Von Vietinohoff-Riesch, F., &DerKarabetian, A. Reinforcement contrast effect on the rewarding and aversive components of intracranial stimulation.Learning and Behavior, 1973,4, 397–404.
Bacotti, A. V. Home cage feeding time controls responding under multiple schedules.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1976,4, 41–44.
Baltzer, V., &Weiskrantz, L. Negative and positive behavioral contrast in the same animals.Nature, 1970,228, 581–582.
Barnes, W., &Tombaugh, T. Another failure to obtain negative contrast following reductions in sucrose reward.Psychological Reports, 1973,33, 801–802.
Barnett, S. A. The rat: A study in behavior, London: Methuen, 1963.
Bartoshuk, L. M. Water taste in man.Perception & Psychophysics, 1968,3, 69–72.
Becker, H. C., &Flaherty, C. F. Influence of ethanol on contrast in consummatory behavior.Psychopharmacology, 1982,77, 253–258.
Beery, R. G. A negative contrast effect of reward delay in differential conditioning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,77, 429–434.
Benefield, R., Oscos, A., &Ehrenfreund, D. Role of frustration in successive positive contrast.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,86, 648–651.
Bevan, W. The pooling mechanism and the phenomena of reinforcement. In O. J. Harvey (Ed.),Motivation and social interaction. New York: Ronald, 1963.
Bevan, W. An adaptation-level interpretation of reinforcement.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1966,23, 511–531.
Bevan, W. The contextual basis of behavior.American Psychologist, 1968,23, 701–713.
Bindra, D. A unified account of classical conditioning and operant training. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.),Classical conditioning II. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.
Bindra, D. A motivational view of learning, performance and behavior modification.Psychological Review, 1974,81, 199–213.
Bintz, J. Between and within-subject effect of shock intensity on avoidance in goldfish (Carassius aura tus).Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,75, 92–97.
Bitterman, M. E. The comparative analysis of learning.Science, 1975,118, 699–709.
Bitterman, M. E. Incentive contrast in honey bees.Science, 1976,192, 380–382.
Black, R. W. Shifts in magnitude of reward and contrast effects in instrumental and selective learning: A reinterpretation.Psychological Review, 1968,75, 114–126.
Bohdanecky, Z., &Jarvik, M. E. Impairment to one-trial passive avoidance learning in mice by scopolamine, scopamine methylbromide and physostigmine.International Journal of Neuropharmacology, 1967,6, 217–222.
Bolles, R. C. Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning.Psychological Review, 1972,79, 394–409.
Bower, G. H. A contrast effect in differential conditioning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1961,62, 196–199.
Bower, G. H., Fowler, H., &Trapold, M. A. Escape learning as a function of amount of shock reduction.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959,58, 482–484.
Brownlee, A., &Bitterman, M. E. Differential reward conditioning in the pigeon.Psychonomic Science, 1968,12, 345–346.
Burns, R. A. Effects of sequences of sucrose reward magnitudes with short ITIs in rats.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1976,4, 473–479.
Burns, R. A., &Burns, D. P. Reduction in sucrose reward magnitude without generalization decrement.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,12, 196–198.
Burns, R. A., Dupree, E. S., &Lorio, T. S. Successive reductions of liquid and solid rewards.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,12, 351–354.
Burns, R. A., Woodward, W. T., Henderson, T. B., &Bitterman, M. E. Simultaneous contrast in the goldfish.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1974,2, 97–100.
Calef, R. S. The effect of large and small magnitudes of intertrial reinforcement on successive contrast effects.Psychonomic Science, 1972,29, 309–312.
Calef, R. S., Calef, R. A., Maxwell, P. R., &McHewitt, E. R. Positive discrimination contrast with delay of reward or low drive.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,6, 120–122.
Calef, R. S., Calef, R. A., Prochaska, A. D., &Geller, E. S. Negative contrast as a function of reinforcement location and consistent vs. varied reward magnitude.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,12, 471–474.
Calef, R. S., Hopkins, D. C., McHewitt, E. R., &Maxwell, F. R. Performance to varied reward following continuous reward training in the runway.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1973,2, 103–104.
Campbell, D. E., Crumbauoh, C. M., Knouse, S. B., &Snodqrass, E. A test of the “ceiling effect” hypothesis of positive contrast.Psychonomic Science, 1970,20, 17–18.
Campbell, E. M., &Meyer, P. A. Effects of daily reward sequence on simultaneous and successive negative contrast in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,74, 434–440.
Capaldi, E. D. Simultaneous shifts in reward magnitude and level of food deprivation.Psychonomic Science, 1971,23, 357–359.
Capaldi, E. D. Effects of changing alley color on the successive negative contrast effect.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,12, 69–70.
Capaldi, E. D., &Singh, R. Percentage body weight and the successive negative contrast effect in rats.Learning & Motivation, 1973,4, 405–416.
Capaldi, E. D., Smith, N. S., &White, L. A. Control of reward expectancies by drive stimuli.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 1977,3, 178–188.
Capaldi, E. J. Partial reinforcement: A hypothesis of sequential effects.Psychological Review, 1966,73, 459–477.
Capaldi, E. J. Successive negative contrast effect: Intertriai interval, type of shift, and four sources of generalization decrement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1972,96, 433–438.
Capaldi, E. J. Partial reward either following or preceding consistent reward: A case of reinforcement level.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1974,102, 954–962.
Capaldi, E. J., &Lynch, D. Repeated shifts in reward magnitude: Evidence in favor of an associational and absolute (non-contextual) interpretation.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967,75, 226–235.
Capaldi, E. J., &Ziff, D. R. Schedule of partial reward and the negative contrast effect.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,68, 593–596.
Carlton, P. L. Brain acetylcholine and inhibition. In J. T. Tapp (Ed.),Reinforcement and behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1969.
Chechile, R., &Fowler, H. Primary and secondary negative incentive contrast in differential conditioning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973,97, 189–197.
Chkn, J., Gross, K., &Amsel, A. Ontogeny of successive negative contrast and its dissociation from other paradoxical effects in preweanling rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1981,95, 146–149.
Ciszewski, W. A., &Flaherty, C. F. Failure of a reinstatement treatment to influence negative contrast.American Journal of Psychology, 1977,90, 219–229.
Cleland, E. A., Williams, M. Y., &DiLollo, V. Magnitude of negative contrast effect in relation to drive level.Psychonomic Science, 1969,15, 121–122.
Cochrane, T. L., Scobie, S. R., &Fallon, D. Negative contrast in goldfish (Carassius auratus).Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1973,1, 411–413.
Collier, G., &Marx, M. H. Changes in performance as a function of shifts in the magnitude of reinforcement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959,57, 305–309.
Collier, G., Knarr, F. A., &Marx, M. H. Some relations between the intensive properties of the consummatory response and reinforcement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1961,62, 484–495.
Cowan, P. E., &Barnett, S. A. The new-object and new-place reaction ofRattus rattus L.Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 1975,56, 219–234.
Cox, W. M. A review of recent incentive contrast studies involving discrete-trial procedures.Psychological Record, 1975,25, 373–393.
Crespi, L. P. Quantitative variation in incentive and performance in the white rat.American Journal of Psychology, 1942,55, 467–517.
Crespi, L. P. Amount of reinforcement and level of performance.Psychological Review, 1944,51, 341–357.
Daly, H. B. Excitatory and inhibitory effects of complete and incomplete reward reduction in the double runway.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,76, 430–438.
Daly, H. B. Reinforcing properties of escape from frustration. In G. H. Bower (Ed.),The psychology of learning and motivation. New York: Academic Press, 1974. (a)
Daly, H. B. Arousal of frustration following gradual reductions in reward magnitude in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,86, 1149–1155. (b)
Daly, H. B., &Rosenberg, K. M. Infantile stimulation and its effects on frustration- and fear-motivated behavior in rats.Learning and Motivation, 1973,4, 381–396.
Dantzer, R., Arnone, M., &Mormede, P. Effects of frustration on behavior and plasma corticosteroid levels in pigs.Physiology & Behavior, 1980,24, 1–4.
Davenport, J. W. The interaction of magnitude and delay of reinforcement in spatial discrimination.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1962,55, 267–273.
Davis, S. F., Harper, W. E., &Seago, J. D. Runway performance of normal, sham, and anosmic rats as a function of magnitude of reward and magnitude shift.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,6, 367–369.
Davis, S. F., &North, A. J. The effect of varied reinforcement training on behavior following incentive reduction.Psychonomic Science, 1967,9, 395–396.
Denenberg, V. H., &Grota, L. J. Social-seeking and novelty-seeking behavior as a function of differential rearing histories.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964,69, 453–456.
DiLollo, V. Runway performance in relation to runway-goal-box similarity and changes in incentive amount.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1964,58, 327–329. (a)
DiLollo, V. Contrast effects in the judgement of lifted weights.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1964,68, 383–387. (b)
DiLollo, F. D., &Beez, V. Negative contrast effect as a function of magnitude of reward decrement.Psychonomic Science, 1966,5, 99–100.
DiLollo, V., &Meyer, P. N. Variations in fluid intake following shifts between water and saccharin solution.Psychonomic Science, 1970,18, 55–56.
Dube, R., Ashton, A. B., &Trowill, J. A. Responses to palatability shifts: Effects of varying the retention interval.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 10–12.
Dunham, P. J. Contrasted conditions of reinforcement: A selective critique.Psychological Bulletin, 1968,69, 295–315.
Dunham, P. J., &Kilps, B. Shifts in magnitude of reinforcement: Confounded factors or contrast effects.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,79, 373–374.
Dunlap, W. P., &Frates, S. D. Influence of deprivation on the frustration effect.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 1–2.
Dyck, D. G., Dresel, K. M., Thiessen, R. B., &DiLollo, V. Extinction following separate-phase acquisition: Effects of shifts in reinforcement percentage and N-length.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,10, 439–442.
Ehrenfreund, D. Effect of drive on successive magnitude shift in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,76, 418–423.
Ehrenfreund, D., &Badia, P. Response strength as a function of drive level and pre- and postshift incentive magnitude.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962,63, 468–471.
Eisenberoer, R., Frank, M., &Park, D. C. Incentive contrast of choice behavior.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 1975,4, 346–354.
Elliott, M. H. The effect of change of reward on the maze performance of rats.University of California Publications-Psychology, 1928,4, 19–30.
Faoen, J. W., &Shoemaker, G. E. Contrast effects in the rat: A developmental study.Developmental Psychobiology, 1979,12, 83–92.
Ferrel, H. J., &Shanab, M. E. Contrast effects as a function of shifts in delay of water reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,5, 417–420.
Fitzgerald, F. S. K. The great Gatsby. New York: Scribner, 1953.
Flaherty, C. F., &Avdzej, A. Bidirectional contrast as a function of rate of alternation of two sucrose solutions.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1974,4, 505–507.
Flaherty, C. F., &Avdzej, A. Transsituational negative contrast.Animal Learning A Behavior, 1976,4, 49–52.
Flaherty, C. F., Becker, H. C., &Driscoll, C. D. Conditions under which amobarbital sodium influences contrast in consummatory behavior.Physiological Psychology, 1982,10, 122–128.
Flaherty, C. F., Blitzer, R., &Collier, Q. H. Open field behaviors elicited by reward reduction.American Journal of Psychology, 1978,91, 429–443.
Flaherty, C. F., Capobianco, S., &Hamilton, L. W. Effects of septal lesions on retention of negative contrast.Physiology & Behavior, 1973,11, 625–631.
Flaherty, C. F., &Caprio, M. Dissociation between instrumental and consummatory measures of incentive contrast.American Journal of Psychology, 1976,89, 485–498.
Flaherty, C. F., &Checke, S. Anticipation of incentive gain.Animal Learning A Behavior, 1982,10, 177–182.
Flaherty, C. F., Ciszewski, W. A., &Kaplan, P. S. Retention of taste quality following brief exposure to sucrose.Chemical Senses and Flavour, 1979,4, 73–78.
Flaherty, C. F., &Driscoll, C. Amobarbital sodium reduces successive gustatory contrast.Psychopharmacology, 1980,69, 161–162.
Flaherty, C. F., &Hamilton, L. W. Responsivity to decreasing sucrose concentrations following septal lesions in the rat.Physiology & Behavior, 1971,6, 431–437.
Flaherty, C. F., &Kaplan, P. Gustatory contrast in rats.Chemical Senses and Flavour, 1979,4, 63–72.
Flaherty, C. F., &Kelly, J. Effect of deprivation state on successive negative contrast.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1973,1, 365–367.
Flaherty, C. F., &Laroen, J. Within-subjects positive and negative contrast effects in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1975,88, 653–664.
Flaherty, C. F., &Lombardi, B. R. Effect of prior differential taste experience on retention of taste quality.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,9, 391–394.
Flaherty, C. F., Lombardi, B. R., Kapust, J., &D’Amato, M. R. Incentive contrast undiminished by extended testing, imipramine, or chlordiazepoxide.Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 1977,7, 315–322.
Flaherty, C. F., Lombardi, B. R., Wrightson, J., &Deptula, D. Conditions under which chlordiazepoxide influences gustatory contrast.Psychopharmacology, 1980,67, 269–277.
Flaherty, C. F., &Meinrath, A. B. Influences of scopolamine on sucrose intake under absolute and relative test conditions.Physiological Psychology, 1979,7, 412–418.
Flaherty, C. F., Powell, G., &Hamilton, L. W. Septal lesion, sex, and incentive shift effects on open field behavior of rats.Physiology & Behavior, 1979,22, 903–909.
Flaherty, C. F., Riley, E. D., &Spear, N. E. Effect of sucrose concentration and goal units on runway behavior in the rat.Learning and Motivation, 1973,4, 163–175.
Flaherty, C. F., &Sepanak, S. J. Bidirectional contrast, matching, and power functions obtained in sucrose consumption by rats.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1978,6, 313–319.
Flaherty, C. F., Troncoso, B., &Deschu, N. Open field behaviors correlated with reward availability and reward shift in three rat strains.American Journal of Psychology, 1979,92, 385–400.
Flaherty, C. F., Wrightson, J., Deptula, D., &Duston, C. Chlordiazepoxide does not influence simultaneous gustatory contrast.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1979,14, 216–218.
Fox, P. A. Reward and nonreward produced stimuli and performance to patterned reinforcement.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972,80, 342–348.
Fox, P. A., Calef, R. S., Gavelek, J. R., &McHose, J. H. Synthesis of differential conditioning and double alley data: Performance to S+ as a function of intertriai interval and antedating reward events.Psychonomic Science, 1970,18, 141–143.
Franchina, J. J., &Brown, T. S. Reward magnitude shift effects in rats with hippocampal lesions.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,76, 365–370.
Galbraith, K. J., Rashotte, M. E., &Amsel, A. Withinsubjects partial reinforcement effects varying percentage reward to the partial stimulus between groups.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,77, 547–551.
Gandelman, R., &Trowill, J. A. Effects of reinforcement shifts upon subsequent saccharin consumption.Psychonomic Science, 1969,15, 25.
Gavelek, J. R., &McHose, J. H. Contrast effects in differential delay of reward conditioning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1970,86, 454–457.
Gleitman, H., &Steinman, F. Depression effect as a function of retention interval before and after shift in reward magnitude.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1964,57, 158–160.
Goldman, L., Coover, G. D., &Levine, S. Bi-directional effects of reinforcement shifts on pituitary adrenal activity.Physiology & Behavior, 1973,10, 209–214.
Gonzalez, R. C., &Bitterman, M. E. Spaced-trials partial reinforcement effect as a function of contrast.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,67, 94–103.
Gonzalez, R. C., &Champlin, G. Positive behavioral contrast, negative simultaneous contrast and their relation to frustration in pigeons.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,87, 173–187.
Gonzalez, R. C., Fernhoff, D., &David, F. G. Contrast, resistance to extinction, and forgetting in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973,84, 562–571.
Gonzalez, R. C., Ferry, M., &Powers, A. S. The adjustment of goldfish to reduction in magnitude of reward in massed trials.Animal Learning A Behavior, 1974,2, 23–26.
Gonzalez, R. C., Gleitman, H., &Bitterman, M. E. Some observations on the depression effect.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1962,55, 578–581.
Gonzalez, R. C., Holmes, N. K., &Bitterman, M. E. Resistance to extinction in the goldfish as a function of frequency and amount of reward.American Journal of Psychology, 1967,80, 269–275.
Gonzalez, R. C., Potts, A., Pitcoff, K., &Bitterman, M. E. Runway performance of goldfish as a function of complete and incomplete reduction in amount of reward.Psychonomic Science, 1972,27, 305–307.
Gonzalez, R. C., &Powers, A. S. Simultaneous contrast in goldfish.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1973,1, 96–98.
Goodrich, K. P., &Zaretsky, H. Running speed as a function of concentration of sucrose during pretraining.Psychological Reports, 1962,11, 463–468.
Gordon, W. C., Flaherty, C. F., &Riley, E. P. Negative contrast as a function of the interval between preshift and post-shift training.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1973,1, 25–27.
Gurowitz, E. M., Rosen, A. J., &Tessel, R. E. Incentive shift performance in cingulectomized rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970,70, 476–481.
Haggbloom, S. J. Effects of a 24-hour intertriai interval on successive differential conditioning and simultaneous negative contrast.American Journal of Psychology, 1979,92, 537–546.
Harris, S. J., Smith, M. G., &Weinstock, S. Effects of nonreinforcement on subsequent reinforced running behavior.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962,64, 388–392.
Harker, G. S. Delay of reward and performance of an instrumental response.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1956,51, 303–310.
Hearst, E., &Peterson, G. B. Transfer of conditioned excitation and inhibition from one operant response to another.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973,99, 360–368.
Helson, H. Adaptation-level theory: An experimental and systematic approach to behavior. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.
Henderson, K. Within-subjects partial reinforcement effects in acquisition and in later discrimination learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1966,72, 704–713.
Homzie, M. J., &Ross, L. E. Runway performance following a reduction in the concentration of a liquid reward.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1962,55, 1029–1033.
Hoyenga, K. T., &Hoyenoa, K. B. Experimental factors in the enhancement of saccharin intake after shifts to water.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1973,1, 244–246.
Huang, I.-N. Successive contrast effects as a function of type and magnitude of reward.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,82, 64–69.
Hull, C. L. Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1943.
Hull, C. L. A behavior system. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952.
Hulse, S. H. Reinforcement contrast effects in rats following experimental definition of a dimension of reinforcement magnitude.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973,85, 160–170.
Ison, J. R., Glass, D. H., &Daly, H. B. Reward magnitude changes following differential conditioning and partial reinforcement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,81, 81–88.
Ison, J. R., &Krane, R. V. Induction in differential instrumental conditioning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,80, 183–185.
Ison, J. R., &Northman, J. Amobarbital sodium and instrumental performance changes following an increase in reward magnitude.Psychonomic Science, 1968,12, 185–186.
Kalish, H. I., &Haber, A. Prediction of discrimination from deprivation level.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1965,60, 125–128.
Klinger, E. Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives.Psychological Review, 1975,82, 1–25.
Klinqer, E. Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people’s lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977.
Klinger, E., Barta, S. G., &Kemble, E. D. Cyclic activity changes during extinction in rats: A potential model of depression.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1974,2, 313–316.
Knarr, F. A., &Collier, G. Taste and consummatory activity in amount and gradient of reinforcement functions.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962,63, 579–588.
Kramarcy, N., Mikulka, P., &Freeman, F. The effects of dorsal hippocampal lesions on reinforcement shifts.Physiological Psychology, 1973,1, 248–250.
Krane, R. V., &Ison, J. R. Positive induction in differential instrumental conditioning: Effect of extended acquisition training.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970,73, 334–340.
Krane, R. V., &Ison, J. R. Positive induction in differential instrumental conditioning: Effect of the interstimulus interval.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,75, 129–135.
Lehr, R. Partial reward and positive contrast effect.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1974,2, 221–224.
Leung, C. M., &Jensen, G. D. Shifts in percentage of reinforcement viewed as changes in incentive.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,76, 291–296.
Likely, D., Little, L., &Mackintosh, N. J. Extinction as a function of magnitude and percentage of food or sucrose reward.Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1971,25, 130–137.
Logan, F. A. The role of delay of reinforcement in determining reaction potential.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1952,43, 393–399.
Logan, F. A. Incentive. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960.
Lombardi, B. R. Enhanced neophobia induced by incentive contrast. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University, 1978.
Lombardi, B. R. Enhanced neophobia induced by incentive contrast.Animal Learning A Behavior, 1980,8, 617–620.
Lombardi, B. R., &Flaherty, C. F. Apparent disinhibition of successive but not of simultaneous negative contrast.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1978,6, 30–42.
Lowes, G., &Bitterman, M. E. Reward and learning in the goldfish.Science, 1967,157, 455–457.
Ludvioson, H. W., &Gay, S. E. Differential reward conditioning, S− contrast as a function of the magnitude of S+.Psychonomic Science, 1966,5, 289–290.
Ludvioson, H. W., &Gay, R. A. An investigation of conditions determining contrast effects in differential reward conditioning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967,75, 37–42.
Mackinnon, J. R. Competing responses in a differential magnitude of reward discrimination.Psychonomic Science, 1968,12, 333–334.
Mackintosh, N. J. Reward and the after-effects of reward in the learning of goldfish.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,76, 225–232.
Mackintosh, N. J., &Lord, J. Simultaneous and successive contrast with delay of reward.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1973,1, 283–286.
Marx, M. H. Positive contrast in instrumental learning from qualitative shift in incentive.Psychonomic Science, 1969,16, 254–255.
Matsumoto, R. T. Relative reward effects in differential conditioning.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,68, 589–592.
Maxwell, F. R., Calef, R. S., Murray, D. W., Shepard, J. C., &Norville, R. A. Positive and negative successive contrast effects following multiple shifts in reward magnitude under high drive and immediate reinforcement.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1976,4, 480–484.
McAllister, D. E., McAllister, W. R., Brooks, C. I., &Goldman, J. A. Magnitude and shift of reward in instrumental averslve learning in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972,80, 490–501.
McBurney, D. H. Gustatory cross adaptation between sweet-tasting compounds.Perception A Psychophysics, 1972,11, 225–227.
McCain, G., Boodee, A., &Lobb, M. Extended training: Delay of reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,9, 111–112.
McCain, G., &Cooney, J. PCE: I. The effects of three reward magnitude shifts.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,6, 523–526.
McCain, G., Lobb, M., Almand, W., &Leck, D. Delay of reinforcement: Extended training and multiple shifts.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1976,7, 539–541.
McCain, G., Lobb, M., &Newberry, J. Extended training and multiple shifts:. Percentage of reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1976,8, 191–193.
McHewitt, E. R. A comparison of S+ and S− depression effects in differential conditioning.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1974,3, 3–5.
McHewitt, E. R. The effect of prior reward magnitude on the successive negative contrast effect.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,6, 126–128.
McHewitt, E. R., Calef, R. S., Maxwell, F. R., Meyer, P. A., &McHose, J. H. Synthesis of double alley and discrimination phenomena: Apparent positive S+ contrast in differential conditioning.Psychonomic Science, 1969,16, 137–139.
McHose, J. H. Relative reinforcement effects: S1, /S2, and S1, /S1, paradigms in instrumental conditioning.Psychological Review, 1970,77, 135–146.
McHobe, J. H. Role of frustration in the development of relative and absolute S− discrimination contrast effects.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969,81, 256–260.
McHose, J. H. Stimuli and incentives as determinants of the successive negative contrast effect.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1973,1, 264–266.
McHose, J. H., &Howard, G. S. Performance in differential instrumental conditioning with infrequent S+ presentations.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1973,1, 132–134.
McHose, J. H., McHewitt, E. R., &Peters, D. P. Average reward as a determinant of S− performance in differential conditioning.Psychonomic Science, 1972,29, 129–132.
McHose, J. H., &Moore, J. N. Expectancy, salience, and habit: A noncontextual interpretation of the effects of changes in the conditions of reinforcement on simple instrumental responses.Psychological Review, 1976,83, 292–307.
McHose, J. H., &Moore, J. N. A comparison of positive and negative contrast effects.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,11, 363–366.
McHose, J. H., &Peters, D. P. Differential instrumental conditioning as a function of percentage and amount of positive stimulus reward.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973,100, 413–415.
McHose, J. H., &Peters, D. P. Partial reward, the negative contrast effect, and incentive averaging.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1975,3, 239–244.
McHose, J. H., &Tauber, L. Changes in delay of reinforcement in simple instrumental conditioning.Psychonomic Science, 1972,27, 291–292.
Meinrath, A. B. The role of neophobia in successive negative contrast: Effects of early handling and varied taste exposure. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University, 1980.
Meiselman, H. L. Effect of presentation procedure on taste intensity functions.Perception & Psychophysics, 1971,10, 15–18.
Mellgren, R. L. Positive contrast in the rat as a function of number of preshift trials in the runway.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,77, 329–336. (a)
Mellgren, R. L. Shift in magnitude of reward after minimal acquisition.Psychonomic Science, 1971,23, 243–244. (b)
Mellgren, R. L. Positive and negative contrast effects using delayed reinforcement.Learning & Motivation, 1972,3, 185–193.
Mellgren, R. L., &Dyck, D. G. Reward magnitude in differential conditioning: Effects of sequential variables in acquisition and extinction.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,86, 1141–1148.
Mellgren, R. L., Seybert, J. A., Wrather, D. M., &Dyck, D. G. Preshift reward magnitude and positive contrast in the rat.American Journal of Psychology, 1973,86, 383–387.
Mellgren, R. L., Wrather, D. M., &Dyck, D. G. Differential conditioning and contrast effects in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972,80, 478–483.
Meyer, P. A., &Campbell, E. M. Role of daily reward sequences on S− discrimination contrast in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973,82, 426–433.
Mikulka, P. J., Lehr, R., &Pavlik, W. B. Effect of reinforcement schedules on reward shifts.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967,74, 57–61.
Mitchell, D., Fairbanks, M., &Laycock, J. D. Suppression of neophobia by chlorpromazine in wild rats.Behavioral Biology, 1977,19, 309–323.
Moore, J. N., &McHose, J. H. The effects of delay of reward on negative contrast effects associated with reductions in reward magnitude.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,6, 497–500.
Morrison, J. H., &Porter, J. J. Magnitude of reward in selective learning.Psychonomic Science, 1965,3, 531–532.
Moskowitz, H. R. Ratio scales of sugar sweetness.Perception & Psychophysics, 1970,7, 315–320.
Murphy, H. M., &Brown, T. S. Effects of hippocampal lesions on simple and preferential consummatory behavior in the rat.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970,72, 404–415.
Nation, J. R., &Durst, D. The effects of schedules of reinforcement and gradual or abrupt increases in reward magnitude on resistance to extinction.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1980,15, 425–427.
Nation, J. R., Mellgren, R. L., &Wrather, D. M. Contrast effects with shifts in punishment level.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,5, 167–169.
Nation, J. R., Roop, S. S., &Dickinson, R. W. Positive contrast following gradual and abrupt increases in reward magnitude using delay of reinforcement.Learning & Motivation, 1976,7, 571–579.
Nation, J. R., Wrather, D. M., &Mellgren, R. L. Contrast effects in escape conditioning of rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,86, 69–73.
Olton, D. S., &Samuelbon, R. J. Remembrance of places past: Spatial memory in rats.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 1976,2, 97–116.
Panksepp, J., &Trowill, J. A. Positive and negative contrast effects with hypothalamic reward.Physiology & Behavior, 1969,4, 173–175.
Panksepp, J., &Trowill, J. A. Positive incentive contrast with rewarding electrical stimulation of the brain.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970,70, 358–363.
Panksepp, J., &Trowill, J. Positive and negative contrast in licking with shifts in sucrose concentration as a function of food deprivation.Learning & Motivation, 1971,2, 49–57.
Pavlov, I. P. Conditioned reflexes. London: Oxford University Press, 1927.
Pieper, W. A., &Marx, M. H. Effects of within-session incentive contrast on instrumental acquisition and performance.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1963,65, 568–571.
Pert, A., &Bitterman, M. E. Reward and learning in the turtle.Learning & Motivation, 1970,1, 121–128.
Pert, A., &Gonzalez, R. C. Behavior of the turtle (Chrysemys pictapicla) in simultaneous, successive, and behavioral contrast situations.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,87, 526–538.
Peters, D. P., &McHose, J. H. Effects of varied preshift reward magnitude on successive negative contrast effects in rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974,86, 85–95.
Pinel, J. P., &Huano, E. Effects of periodic withdrawal on ethanol and saccharin selection in rats.Physiology & Behavior, 1976,16, 693–698.
Pinel, J. P., &Rovner, L. I. Saccharin elation effect.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,9, 275–278.
Platt, J. R., &Gay, R. A. Differential magnitude of reward conditioning as a function of predifferential reward magnitude.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,77, 393–396.
Premack, D. On some boundary conditions of contrast. In J. T. Tapp (Eds.),Reinforcement and behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1969.
Premack, D., &Hillix, W. A. Evidence for shift effects in the consummatory response.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962,63, 284–288.
Raymond, B., Aderman, M., &Wolach, A. H. Incentive shifts in the goldfish.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1972,78, 10–13.
Rescorla, R. A. Probability of shock in the presence and absence of CS in fear conditioning.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1968,66, 1–5.
Rescorla, R. A. Conditioned inhibition of fear resulting from negative CS-UCS contingencies.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,67, 504–509.
Ridoers, A., &Gray, J. A. Influence of amylobarbitone on operant depression and elation effects in the rat.Psychopharmacologia, 1973,32, 265–270.
Riley, A., &Dunlap, W. P. Successive negative contrast as a function of deprivation condition following shifts in sucrose concentration.American Journal of Psychology, 1979,92, 59–70.
Roberts, W. A. The effects of shifts in magnitude of reward on runway performance in immature and adult rats.Psychonomic Science, 1966,5, 37–38.
Roberts, W. A., &Pixley, L. The effect of chlorpromazine on the depression effect.Psychonomic Science, 1965,3, 407–408.
Roop, S. S., &Nation, J. R. Positive contrast following a shift from partial punishment to continuous reinforcement.Psychological Reports, 1976,39, 934.
Rosellini, R. A., &Terris, W. Incentive shift in the rat following training to resist punishment.Learning & Motivation, 1975,6, 421–438.
Rosen, A. J. Incentive-shift performance as a function of magnitude of sucrose rewards.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1966,62, 487–490.
Rosen, A. J., &Ison, J. R. Runway performance following changes in sucrose rewards.Psychonomic Science, 1965,2, 335–336.
Rosen, A. J., Glass, D. H., &Ison, J. R. Amobarbital sodium and instrumental performance changes following reward reduction.Psychonomic Science, 1967,9, 129–130.
Rosen, A. J., &Tessel, R. E. Chlorpromazine, chlordiazepoxide and incentive shift performance in the rat.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1970,72, 257–262.
Royce, J. R., Poley, W., &Yeudall, L. T. Behavior-genetic analysis of mouse emotionality: I. Factor analysis.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1973,83, 36–47.
Schrier, A. M. Effects of an upward shift in amount of rein-forcer on runway performance of rats.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1967,64, 490–492.
Seybert, J. A. Positive and negative contrast effects as a function of shifts in percentage of reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1979,13, 19–22.
Seybert, J. A., &Melloren, R. L. Positive contrast: Control of ceiling effect using a long runway.Psychological Reports, 1972,31, 14.
Soro, J. A., Gloteelty, R. A., &Podlesni, J. A. Contrast effects and delay of reward in the double alleyway.Psychonomic Science, 1969,16, 29–31.
Soro, J. A., &Weinstock, S. Effects of delay on subsequent running under immediate reinforcement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1963,66, 260–263.
Shanab, M. E. Positive transfer between delay and nonreward.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1971,91, 98–102.
Shanab, M. E., &Biller, J. D. Positive contrast in the runway obtained following a shift in both delay and magnitude of reward.Learning and Motivation, 1972,3, 179–184.
Shanab, M. E., Birnbaum, D. W., &Cavallaro, G. Positive contrast obtained in reacquisition following interpolation of nonreinforced or partially reinforced trials.Learning and Motivation, 1974,5, 258–271.
Shanab, M. E., &Cavallaro, G. Positive contrast obtained in rats following a shift in schedule, delay, and magnitude of reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,5, 109–112.
Shanab, M., Domino, J., &Melrose, S. The effects of shifts in delay of liquid sucrose reward in thirsty rats.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,10, 287–290.
Shanab, M. E., Domino, J., &Ralph, L. The effects of repeated shifts in magnitude of food reward upon the barpress rate in the rat.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,12, 29–31.
Shanab, M. E., &Ferrell, H. J. Positive contrast in the Lashley maze under different drive conditions.Psychonomic Science, 1970,20, 31–32.
Shanab, M. E., &Ferrell, H. J. Transfer between downshift in reward magnitude and continuous delay of reward.Learning and Motivation, 1975,6, 241–252.
Shanab, M. E., France, J., &Young, T. Negative contrast effect obtained with downshifts in magnitude but not concentration of solid sucrose reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,5, 429–432.
Shanab, M. E., France, J., &Young, T. Positive and negative contrast effects obtained following shifts in liquid sucrose reward in thirsty rats.Animal Learning & Behavior, 1976,4, 9–12.
Shanab, M. E., &McCuistion, S. Effects of shifts in magnitude and delay of reinforcement upon runway performance in the rat.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 264–266.
Shanab, M. E., Rouse, L. O., &Cavallaro, G. Effects of shifts in delay of reward in rats as a function of reward magnitude.Journal of General Psychology, 1973,89, 59–66.
Shanab, M. E., Sanders, R., &Premack, D. Positive contrast in the runway obtained with delay of reward.Science, 1969,164, 724–725.
Shanab, M. E., &Spencer, R. E. Positive and negative contrast effects obtained following shifts in delayed water reward.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,12, 199–202.
Shanab, M. E., &White, R. Positive contrast obtained with punishment.Journal of General Psychology, 1972,86, 247–251.
Shanab, M. E., Youno, T., &France, J. Negative contrast as a function of downshifts in magnitude of sucrose concentrations in thirsty rats.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1975,5, 381–384.
Sheehan, G. A. Running and being: The total experience. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978.
Sinclair, J. D., Walker, S., &Jordan, W. Behavioral and physiological changes associated with various durations of alcohol deprivation in rats.Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1973,34, 744–757.
Singer, B. F. Incentive shift in a choice situation.American Journal of Psychology, 1973,86, 183–191.
Spear, N. E. Replication report: Absence of a successive contrast effect on instrumental running behavior after a shift in sucrose concentration.Psychological Reports, 1965,16, 393–394.
Spear, N. E., &Hill, W. F. Adjustment to new reward: Simultaneous and successive-contrast effects.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1965,70, 510–519.
Spear, N. E. Retention of reinforcer magnitude.Psychological Review, 1967,74, 216–234.
Spear, N. E., &Pavlik, W. B. Percentage of reinforcement and reward magnitude effects in a T-maze between and within subjects.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1966,71, 521–528.
Spear, N. E., & Spitzner, J. H. Simultaneous and successive contrast effects of reward magnitude in selective learning.Psychological Monographs, 1966,10 (10, Whole No. 618).
Spear, N. E., &Spitzner, J. H. Influence of degree of training and prior reinforcer magnitude on contrast effects and resistance to extinction within S.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,68, 427–433. (a)
Spear, N. E., &Spitzner, J. H. Simultaneous and successive shifts in reinforcer magnitude and influence of discrimination task.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1969,69, 160–165. (b)
Spence, K. W. Behavior theory and conditioning. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956.
Spencer, R. E., &Shanab, M. E. Contrast effects as a function of delay and shifts in magnitude of water reward in thirsty rats.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1979,13, 93–96.
Stanton, M., &Amsel, A. Adjustment to reward reduction (but no negative contrast) in rats, 11, 14, and 16 days of age.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1980,94, 446–458.
Stevens, S. S. Sensory scales of taste intensity.Perception & Psychophysics, 1969,6, 302–307.
Thomas, D. R., &Kino, R. D. Stimulus generalization as a function of level of motivation.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959,57, 323–328.
Tinklepaugh, O. An experimental study of representative factors in monkeys.Journal of Comparative Psychology, 1928,8, 197–236.
Tolman, E. C. Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York: Century, 1932.
Vogel, J. R., Mikulka, P. J., &Spear, N. E. Effect of interpolated extinction and level of training on the “depression effect.”Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1966,72, 51–60.
Vooel, J. R., Mikulka, P. J., &Spear, N. E. Effects of shifts in sucrose and saccharin concentrations on licking behavior in the rat.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1968,66, 661–666.
Vooel, J. R., &Principi, K. Effects of chlordiazepoxide on depressed performance after reward reduction.Psychophar-macologia, 1971,21, 8–12.
Wagner, A. R. Effects of amount and percentage of reinforcement and number of acquisition trials on conditioning and extinction.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1961,62, 234–242.
Wagner, A. R. Frustrative nonreward: A variety of punishment? In B. A. Campbell & R. M. Church (Eds.),Punishment. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969.
Walkenbach, J., Haddad, N. F., &Mellgren, R. L. N-length shifts and successive contrast effects.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1978,11, 83–85.
Wayner, M. J., Greenberg, I., Tartaglione, D., Nolley, D., Fraley, S., &Cott, A. A new factor affecting the consumption of ethyl alcohol and other sapid fluids.Physiology & Behavior, 1972,8, 345–362.
Weinstein, L. Negative incentive contrast effects with saccharin vs sucrose and partial reinforcement.Psychonomic Science, 1970,21, 276–278. (a)
Weinstein, L. Negative incentive contrast with sucrose.Psychonomic Science, 1970,19, 13–14. (b)
Weinstein, L. Effects of magnitude of reward increment on positive incentive contrast effects in the rat.Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 1977,9, 233–235.
Weinstock, R. B. Preacquisition exploration of the runway in the determination of contrast effects in the rat.Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1971,75, 107–115.
Wolach, A. H., &Latta, K. Reward magnitude shifts in turtles (Pseudemys scripta elegans).Psychological Record, 1974,24, 237–241.
Wolach, A. H., Raymond, B., &Hurst, J. W. Reward magnitude shifts with goldfish.Psychological Record, 1973,23, 371–376.
Woods, P. J. Performance changes in escape conditioning following shifts in the magnitude of reinforcement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967,75, 487–491.
Woodworth, R. S., &Schlosberg, H. Experimental psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehait, and Winston, 1954.
Zeaman, D. Response latency as a function of the amount of reinforcement.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1949,39, 466–483.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Preparation for this article was aided by grants from the Rutgers Research Council.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Flaherty, C.F. Incentive contrast: A review of behavioral changes following shifts in reward. Animal Learning & Behavior 10, 409–440 (1982). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212282
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212282