Next Article in Journal
Change Management and Innovation Practices during Pandemic in the Middle East E-Commerce Industry
Next Article in Special Issue
Integration of Supercritical CO2 Recompression Brayton Cycle with Organic Rankine/Flash and Kalina Cycles: Thermoeconomic Comparison
Previous Article in Journal
A SUDS Planning Decision Support Tool to Maximize Ecosystem Services
Previous Article in Special Issue
Protoporphyrin Extracted from Biomass Waste as Sustainable Corrosion Inhibitors of T22 Carbon Steel in Acidic Environments
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 14
Issue 8
10.3390/su14084565
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

A Review of Organic Waste Treatment Using Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens)

by
Nur Fardilla Amrul
1,
Irfana Kabir Ahmad
1,2,*,
Noor Ezlin Ahmad Basri
1,2,
Fatihah Suja
1,
Nurul Ain Abdul Jalil
3 and
Nur Asyiqin Azman
1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Sustainable Urban Transport Research Centre (SUTRA), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Department of Earth Science and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(8), 4565; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084565
Submission received: 14 March 2022 / Revised: 6 April 2022 / Accepted: 8 April 2022 / Published: 11 April 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Recovery, Sustainability and Waste Management)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The increase in solid waste generation is caused primarily by the global population growth that resulted in urban sprawl, economic development, and consumerism. Poor waste management has adverse impacts on the environment and human health. The recent years have seen increasing interest in using black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens, as an organic waste converter. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) feed voraciously on various types of organic waste, including food wastes, agro-industrial by-products, and chicken and dairy manure, and reduce the initial weight of the organic waste by about 50% in a shorter period than conventional composting. The main components of the BSFL system are the larvero, where the larvae feed and grow, and the fly house, where the adults BSF live and reproduce. It is essential to have a rearing facility that maintains the healthy adult and larval BSF to provide a sufficient and continuous supply of offspring for organic waste treatment. The BSF organic waste processing facility consists of waste pre-processing, BSFL biowaste treatment, the separation of BSFL from the process residue, and larvae and residue refinement into marketable products. BSFL digest the nutrients in the wastes and convert them into beneficial proteins and fats used to produce animal feed, and BSFL residue can be used as an organic fertilizer. This review summarizes the BSFL treatment process to provide an in-depth understanding of the value of its by-products as animal feed and organic fertilizer.

1. Introduction

Population growth brings a higher standard of living that results in direct or indirect solid waste generation. Solid wastes are generated by the agricultural, commercial, construction, hazardous, industrial, and food sectors [1]. The generation of solid waste is projected to increase with the rapid growth of the global population. A United Nations report projected that the current world population of about 7.6 billion will reach 8.6 billion in 2030 and 9.8 billion in 2050. The recent decades have seen significant changes in mass production, mass consumption, and mass waste disposal due to metropolitan area network spread, economic development, and consumerist ways of life [2,3]. These factors contribute to the continuous generation of large volumes of wastes. According to Kaza et al. [4], about 1.3 million tons of solid waste are generated daily. The amount is projected to increase from two billion tons in 2016 to 3.4 billion tons in 2050. There is an urgent need for researchers to develop better technologies and processes to deal with the problems associated with waste generation.
The primary objective of waste management is to reduce the amount of generated waste and, thus, reduce the disposal cost and the impacts on the environment and on human health [5]. A poor waste management system will lead to the environmental issues typically experienced by most low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) due to the tactless open dumping and uncontrolled burning that cause air and water pollution [4]. Between 50–70% of the solid wastes dumped in landfills are organic materials, and the remaining are non-organic materials comprising a mixture of plastics, metals, paper, and glass. Waste pickers collect large amounts of non-organic waste for recycling and leave a large proportion of organic wastes to decompose at the dumpsites [6]. The decomposition of organic waste emits methane and carbon dioxide as end-products and causes the accumulation of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change [7]. In addition, the unhygienic conditions at landfills encourage the breeding of vermin, flies, and rodent vectors that spread diseases such as cholera and malaria in the community [8]. Composting is one of the methods that can reduce the amount of organic waste sent to landfills.
Composting is a proven technology for treating organic waste and can significantly reduce the amount of generated waste. The conversion of organic refuse by saprophage (CORS) systems, which feeds decaying organic waste to organisms (saprophages), can improve composting performance. The well-known application of CORS is vermicomposting, in which worms and microorganisms convert organic waste into nutrient-rich humus [9]. The black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens Linnaeus (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), have been introduced as organic waste converters. Researchers have focused on a relatively new organic waste treatment method using BSF [10,11]. BSF larvae (BSFL) voraciously consume organic-rich waste such as food wastes [12], agro-industrial by-products [13], and dairy manure [14]. Thus, the nutrients in BSFL can be converted into essential proteins and fats used in animal feed [15,16], and fulfill the shortage of conventional animal feed, the price of which has been increasing over the years [17]. Moreover, the residue from the BSFL bioconversion process can be used as a fertilizer [16,18]. Another benefit of this process is that BSF adults are non-pathogenic, since they do not feed. Researchers found that BSFL secrete harmful bactericidal compounds that prevent house flies from laying eggs and diminish foodborne pathogens, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. Hence, there is no concern with the transmission of diseases due to BSF farming on an industrial scale.
The economic feasibility of waste management is dependent on several factors, including the type of organic source, nutrient content, and the conversion ratio of waste to biomass [19]. BSFL’s conversion of organic waste is an excellent recycling technique and a comprehensive solution because of its fewer adverse environmental impacts, such as less greenhouse gas emissions and smaller ecological footprint for producing protein feed and other nutrient supplements. The low capital investment of this method makes its implementation feasible for low- and middle-income countries [20]. Much research has been conducted on BSF larvae composting. This paper will summarize the findings of selected previous studies on BSFL organic waste treatment and the potential use of BSF by-products that focused on larvae and frass, thereby providing a comprehensive and concise source of knowledge to the reader.

2. The Life Cycle of Black Soldier Fly

The black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens, is a true fly (Diptera) of the family Stratiomyidae that has a promising potential as a cost-effective alternative for recycling biological waste [21]. Even though the BSF originates in the tropical, subtropical, and northern regions of the Americas, they are now present in tropical and temperate areas of the world [22,23]. BSF adults are not strong fliers and spend most of the day resting on plants, and live approximately two weeks only on water. Unlike other flies, BSF adults do not bite and ingest food because they do not have a stinger, mouthpart, or digestive organs. They are 15–20 mm long, and the male BSF has a bronze abdomen, while the female is reddish-brown [24]. The adult female BSF mates and oviposits only once in her lifetime. The BSF is a eurygamous insect that mates during flight and requires broad areas for their nuptial flight [25].
The male BSF emerges two days earlier than the females, and mating occurs after two days. The females lay eggs in crevices in dry areas near the larval substrate; the eggs hatch in about four days into a neonate larvae stage [26]. The larvae grow on organic waste, including manure, food scraps, municipal refuse, and decomposed plant material [22,27]. In the final stage, the larvae can reach 27 mm in length and widths of up to 6 mm, and weigh up to 220 mg [28]. The prepupae, the last larval stage before pupation, empty their digestive tract and leave the food source to search for a dry and safe spot to pupate; this behavior is the “self-harvesting” that eliminates the previously labor-intensive stage of their farming [22]. The larvae have now reached their maximum size and have a 36–48% protein and 33% fat content [29], and will develop into adults in about 14 days [30,31]. Figure 1 shows the life cycle of the BSF, from egg to adult, which takes an average of 40–43 days in the tropics [26]. However, the cycle could take up to four months [32] since the larval and prepupal stages may extend, depending on food availability and other conditions. BSFL feed on as much organic waste as they can and stop feeding once they pupate and transform into adults. The fat reserved in their body is converted into energy for adults’ mating and continuous life cycle [26]. Nevertheless, environmental conditions, such as temperature, light, and humidity, are the critical factors for ensuring a successful BSF life cycle, which will be discussed further in the sub-topic on the BSF treatment system.

3. Organic Waste Treatment via Black Soldier Fly Farming

The unique characteristic of BSFL is that they can consume large amounts of organic wastes for growth until they reach the prepupae stage [33]. Compared to conventional composting, BSFL are more effective in reducing 50% of the organic waste in a shorter period. Because of this, researchers have focused on using BSF as a sustainable alternative for treating organic waste. Table 1 lists the different types of organic waste used in BSF waste treatment. Organic waste treatment with BSF is cost-effective and emits less pollution [34]. According to Diener et al. [35], large-scale facilities use BSFL to produce protein and treat up to 200 tons of waste each day. However, the details of the current design and operating procedures for effective large-scale BSF treatment is commercially sensitive information and not shared [36]. This section presents a brief review of the systems and designs of the BSF waste treatment used by previous researchers.

3.1. Black Soldier Fly Organic Waste Processing System

The BSF organic waste processing facility consists of waste pre-processing (e.g., particle size reduction, dewatering, and inorganic waste removal), BSFL biowaste treatment, separation of BSFL from the process residue, and larvae and residue refinement into marketable products [49]. Figure 2 shows the flow of a basic BSF treatment process. The system comprises the larvero, which is a place where the larvae grow, while the fly house is where the adults live and reproduce [21]. A rearing facility that maintains healthy adult and larval BSF is essential to ensure a sufficient and continuous supply of offspring for organic waste treatment [49]. Larvae and frass are the by-products produced in biomass by the end of the BSF treatment process, which can be converted into animal feedstuff and organic fertilizer. Overall, BSFs are particularly compelling, since they offer a natural and cost-effective potential alternative for recycling biological waste.

3.1.1. Black Soldier Fly Egg-Trapping

The initial step of BSF treatment is to purchase the BSF eggs from the market or capture them in the wild. The major components in the egg-trapping are baiting and trapping materials. The egg-trap set-up to acquire BSF eggs in the wild consists of a rearing box, the substrate as a food source (any organic material, such as fruits, vegetables, or animal manure), a nylon net, and corrugated cardboard pieces. Booth and Sheppard [50] used chicken manure as bait and placed the corrugated cardboard on chicken manure as a trap for the female BSF to lay the eggs in the flute of the corrugated cardboard. The nylon net allows the odor to escape while preventing parasitic and predatory insects from entering and disrupting the system [51]. The rearing box containing the substrates is placed in the open to attract female BSFs.
Previous studies showed that female BSFs laid eggs on various organic matters. Sripontan et al. [51] investigated the use of several substrates to attract females and found more egg clutches near the fruit waste traps than animal manure. Ewusie et al. [52] found that piggery dump waste is a more suitable site to trap BSF eggs than poultry and sheep waste microhabitats. This study found that, even though female BSFs are attracted to various types of decaying organic waste, they tend to choose those with higher nutrition content for their offspring. In addition to the baiting materials, environmental factors influence the efficiency of BSF egg-trapping. The vegetation growing around the site, for example, is an ideal trapping site because it provides a resting area for the adults and protects them from heat and rain [53]. Placing the rearing box at a desirable site will increase the egg-trapping efficiency. The corrugated cardboard where the females deposited their eggs is placed in the larvero system [54]. The hatched larvae are reared until they are 4–6 days old (DOL), and are then placed in the BSFL treatment unit. The organic waste for BSFL feeding substrates is pre-treated to optimize BSFL conversion performance [14].

3.1.2. Pre-Treatment of the Black Soldier Fly System

The pre-treatment of the substrate is critical to improving substrate biodegradability/digestibility, making it easier for the BFSL to digest the substrate. It also promotes the growth of the BFSL. The capacity of BSFL to degrade waste in a specific time can be evaluated by using the waste reduction index (WRI, Equation (1)). Higher WRI values indicate a good reduction efficiency [9].
WRI = [(W−R)/W]/t × 100
where W is the total quantity of feeding substrate used during the time t, and R is the residue left at harvesting time t.
Dortmans et al. [49] recommended shredding or grinding the substrate after separating the inorganic materials from the hazardous materials because the larvae take longer to break down large chunks of the substrate due to their small mouthparts. The shredding or grinding also increases the surface area of the substrate, which promotes the growth of beneficial microbes and homogenizes the substrates, which improves the consistency of nutrient availability in the mixtures [55].
Several studies have investigated the pre-treatment methods for improving substrate biodegradability and nutrient viability [14]. Gao et al. [56] used shredded maize straw as a substrate; the optimal fermented straw was obtained by mixing Aspergillus oryzae in an inoculation ratio of 4000:1 and fermenting it for 24 h in a 32.3% water content. Wong and Lim [57] investigated the self-fermentation of waste coconut endosperm and discovered that the optimum duration to increase the nutrition content in waste coconut endosperm is four weeks. These studies added microorganisms to the substrate to increase the hydrolysis rate of lignocellulosic materials [33]. Researchers also recommended pre-treating by mixing the waste with other substrates to obtain a balanced nutrient content that ensures larval growth. For example, researchers have added rice straw with glucose to restaurant waste [58] and dairy manure to soybean curd residue [14]. Xiao et al. [16] found that mixing sewage sludge with chicken manure shortened the larval development time from 39 days to 12–13 days, compared to using only a sewage sludge mixture. This study shows that blending two or more substrates could enhance the nutritional value, which ensures larval growth and, thus, helps the BSF complete its life cycle in a shorter time. In summary, pre-treatment is one of the factors determining the effectiveness of a BSF treatment system.

3.1.3. Black Soldier Fly Treatment System

A particular concern with BSFL organic waste treatment is its varying reliability and efficiency [59]. Researchers used various types of organic waste as a substrate in BSF treatment, including kitchen waste [12], poultry waste [60], dairy manure [48], and human feces [42]. Tinder et al. [61] contended that the macronutrients in organic wastes, such as protein, carbohydrates, fibers, and lipids, have a considerable influence on the process performance. Protein is an essential nutrient in larval feeding substrates because of its significant positive effect on larval development [62]. Nguyen et al. [55] and Oonincx et al. [45] found that BSFL reared in organic wastes with higher protein contents have higher larval weights, larval proteins, bioconversion rates, feed conversion rates, and shorter development times and lower lipid contents. Jalil et al. [63] have proven that larvae reared in protein food sources are larger than those feeding on a carbohydrate food source. Jucker et al. [40] found that larvae feeding on substrates with low protein contents have a longer development time, are smaller, and have higher lipid contents if the carbohydrate content is high [40]. The different nutrient contents of the organic wastes determine the BSFL’s performance. For example, municipal organic solid wastes have the highest lipid contents; municipal organic solid waste and animal manure have higher protein contents than fruits and vegetables, which have higher carbohydrate contents. Animal manures and fruit and vegetable wastes have a higher median fiber and ash content [59]. Therefore, enhancing and balancing the nutritional value of the BSFL feeding substrates by blending several nutrient-rich substrates during the pre-treatment step can improve the process performance and quality of BSFL biomass. The efficiency of BSFL treatment is dependent on the type, quantity, and quality of feed, and also various environmental factors.
Previous studies have determined the optimum range for the operating parameters for process performance. BSFL can live in aggressive environmental conditions, such as drought, oxygen scarcity, and food shortages, to a certain degree. Nonetheless, the ideal temperature range for BSF adults’ mating and oviposition is between 27–37 °C, 40–60% humidity, and 60–70% relative humidity [64]. Lalander et al. [38] studied the BSF composting process efficiency by providing ventilation and found that 80–90% water content is adequate for BSFL feeding substrate. Cheng et al. [39] investigated the trade-off between larval growth rate and residue sieving efficiency. They found that even though a higher moisture content of the food waste results in a higher larval growth rate, it is difficult to separate the residue from the BSFL biomass. They recommended an optimum range of 70–75% for efficient residue sieving because sieving is no longer feasible at a moisture content of more than 80%. The studies on substrate pH have determined the impact of pH on larval development. Ma et al. [18] found that both acidic (pH = 2, pH = 4, and pH = 6) and basic (pH = 8 and pH = 10) conditions contribute to high BSFL survival. However, a pH range of 6 to 10 is more conducive for optimal larval growth and higher larval weight relative to a pH range of 2 to 4 because the alkalization of the substrates by larval activity stimulates protease activity, which increases the amount of protein available for larval growth [65]. The BSFL bioconversion process increases the pH of the substrate and leaves an alkaline residue, making the substrate suitable for use as fertilizer; the ideal pH range of 7 to 8 stimulates plant growth and provides a favorable environment for nurturing beneficial bacterial populations in the residue [25,66].
The substrates and neonate larvae (4–6 DOL) were placed in the larvero of the BSFL treatment unit to begin the composting process. The young larvae feed on the substrate and grow while processing and reducing the waste. The number of BSFL added to the substrate is dependent on the amount of waste in a specified volume and surface area [49]. Lalander et al. [19] have shown that the efficiency of the operation is influenced by larval density, feeding rate, and feeding mechanism. The ideal condition for an experimental setting is a larval density of 1.2 larvae/cm2 and a feeding rate of 163 mg/larva/day (dry base), which yielded up to 1.1 kg/m2/day of larval compost and 59 g/m2/day of larval biomass on a dry basis [67]. The BSFL can be fed by a batch (TFS) or daily (DFS) feeding system. Meneguz et al. [13] found that TFS larvae have a shorter development time, but DFS larvae have a higher final weight. The thickness of the substrate layer in the larvero is limited to no more than 5 cm. The larvae cannot process the entire layer if the substrate is more than 5 cm thick, and the unprocessed substrate will rot and produce an odor that attracts other filth flies. The composting process in the larvero continues until the larvae grow large enough for harvest after 14–18 days of feeding. The prepupae crawled out on their own and had the advantage of being already separated from the residue. A high portion of the prepupae remained in the substrate, which resulted in an unwanted fly population and a loss of harvest [49]. Therefore, it is essential to sieve the substrate to separate the BSFL biomass from residue before refining the marketable products.

3.1.4. Post-Treatment of the Black Soldier Fly System

The main by-products of the BSFL organic waste treatment are the larvae and frass that need to be separated to obtain valuable products, such as animal feedstock and fertilizer. BSFL accumulates adequate nutrients, such as proteins and lipids, during the larval stage, since this is the only feeding duration in the BSF lifecycle. The larvae then undergo pupation and emerge as adult flies, leaving a residue called frass. The main advantage of the BSF system is that the larvae can consume a variety of organic materials for growth, including decomposable by-products and wastes, until they reach the prepupae stage [33]. Diener et al. [27] recommended adding a food supply to the larvero daily, providing a drainage system to drain the excess leachate, and a ramp for the prepupae to crawl out from the larvero, which also ensures the easy separation of the pupae from the frass [27].
The sieving is conducted in the final stage to refine the residue quality since many prepupae are still present in the material [49]. In the conventional approach of BSFL bioconversion, the organic waste is fed directly to the larvae without any moisture adjustment [27]. This method is straightforward and saves time; however, it is difficult to separate the residue from BSFL biomass when the residue is excessively wet with a moisture content of 82–86%, making it too viscous for sieving [30]. Proper moisture control can overcome this problem. Cheng et al. [39] conducted an experiment to determine the effect of food waste moisture contents of 70%, 75%, and 80% on residue separation. The ideal moisture contents for sieving food waste are 70 and 75%. Residue with 80% initial moisture content is not suitable for sieving because the adhesive property of the water molecules promotes particle aggregation, which increases the particle size. Dortmans et al. [49] suggested harvesting, which is the process of separating the larvae from the residue using a manual or automated shaking sieve after 12 days of BSFL waste treatment, when the larvae have reached their maximum weight and nutritional value but have not developed into prepupae. The larvae or prepupae can be processed to produce animal feed, and the residue is refined to produce organic fertilizer.

4. BSF–Organic Waste Processing Products

The extracted protein meal and oils, and other by-products from BSFL treatment, can be used as animal feed, biodiesel, and fertilizer [68]. BSF is an insect with a short lifecycle, rapid growth, and promising potential. BSF farming is a new approach for recycling organic waste, such as animal waste [55], kitchen waste [31], and other types of organic waste, and converting the low-value wastes into high-value, marketable ingredients [64]. BSFL are safe for consumption by animals because they are pest-free and do not accumulate mycotoxins or pesticides in their bodies. However, this production approach has a social stigma that forbids the consumption of organisms [34]. Thus, researchers have conducted studies to determine the compositions and effects of BSFL biomass and residue, in general, to educate the public about the BSFL processing products.
Figure 3 shows the general flow of processing raw wastes to obtain the by-products in the BSF waste treatment system. Based on Figure 3, the utilization of H. illucens flies is promising where the larvae are a source of high-quality protein and, on the other hand, can consume organic waste throughout their lives, consequently reducing the disposal waste. However, when these flies are bred on a large scale, secondary waste is produced, leaving large numbers of dead fly biomass. Ushacova et al. [69] found that this biomass has the potential to be an important renewable source of pigments such as melanin and ommochrome. Overall, all biomass produced throughout BSF organic waste system is useful, and can be converted into valuable products.

4.1. Larvae/Prepupae

The larvae are harvested from the larveros before reaching their maximum weight and nutritional value as prepupae. The larvae require some form of post-processing, or product refinement, to ensure they are sanitized before being shipped to the customers. Larvae refinement can include killing, cleaning, sterilizing, and fractioning, for example, to separate the protein and lipid. Dortmans et al. [49] recommended killing the larvae instantly by dipping them in boiling water to sanitize them. Storable products should not have a water and fat content of more than 10%. Sun-drying is a suitable method for reducing the water content, while oil pressing reduces the fat content. BSFL gained attention after the first significant reduction in marine fish stocks that exerted pressure to increase soybean production for use as a fish meal replacement [70]. The decrease in fish meal supply due to exploitation has resulted in a higher price of the fish meal. Hence, there is a need to develop a substitute for the traditional feeding substances using new sustainable sources such as BSFL. BSFL biomass must undergo analysis following the standards set by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply (MAPA) in the normative instruction no. 04/2007, concerning best practices to produce quality animal feed in a hygienic condition (MAPA 2007).
BSFL convert various organic wastes into protein and fat-rich biomass [56] that is harmless to animals and is a suitable substitute for the conventional proteins in animal diets [25]. The nutritional composition of the larvae, which is approximately 40% larval protein and 30% larval fat, is dependent on the quality of the substrate fed to the BSFL, particularly the protein and carbohydrate content of the substrate [71]. Table 2 shows that the larvae reared on cow manure (41.2%) have a higher protein composition than those feeding on vegetable and fruit waste (39.9%). The larvae reared on restaurant waste have the highest larval fat content (38.6%). According to Gold at al. [59], animal manure has higher protein content than fruits and vegetables, and municipal organic solid wastes have the highest lipid content. Several studies have determined the efficiency of BSF meal as a poultry feed [72], which generally shows that BSF meal can replace a significant portion of soybean meal in the poultry diet without affecting the product performance and quality. The studies on several fish species, including channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) [73], African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) [74], Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) [75], rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) [76], and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) [77], successfully used BSF meal as a substitute for fish meal. These results indicate that BSF meal could be an alternative protein source for many fish species.
BSFL have high protein content, containing all the essential amino acids required by humans. Despite that, the food safety risk is of the largest concern when introducing BSFL for human consumption, since BSFL are grown on “waste”. Some studies show the feed fed to the BSFL and blanching were discovered to influence the safety of ingesting BSFL, emphasizing the significance of adding adequate decontamination measures, such as blanching, to assure food safety [81]. In general, insect consumption is still a novelty in Western societies because of less knowledge of insect-eating, unlike Thai consumers, who were likely to eat insects because of cultural familiarity [82]. According to surveys of primarily Western consumers, information about the sustainability and nutrition of insects might increase consumers’ confidence to eat a product containing insects, and has the potential to be used as a tool to persuade consumers to try insect-based foods [83]. Thus, many studies investigated BSFL nutrition, which is an early purpose for animal feedstock, and also found that BSFL are relevant for human consumption [81].
In addition to being rich in protein, BSFL also have a high fat content (21–40% of dry mass). BSFL use the fats in their diet during the larval stage as an energy source in their non-feeding adult stage. The fat can be extracted and processed into biodiesel through trans esterification [80]. The idea of using biodiesel (renewable fuel) was popularized globally two or three decades ago. However, several limiting issues, such as the use of edible crops that result in competition with fulfilling food demand and high production cost, necessitate the development of cost-effective biodiesel production alternatives. The conversion of lignocellulosic biomass by BSFL into valuable products is a cost-reduction approach that uses cheaper raw materials to produce biodiesel [84]. BSF fat is high in medium-chain saturated fatty acids and low in polyunsaturated fatty acids, which give the biodiesel a low viscosity and good oxidative stability. Researchers have experimented with various techniques to extract fat from BSF biomass [80,85]. BSF biodiesel has good combustion and fuel efficiency and reduced environmental emissions. Additionally, studies have proven that the quality of biodiesel produced from BSF fat meets international biodiesel standards, including the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM D6751) and the EN 14,214 European standard [86].

4.2. Frass

In addition to prepupae/larvae, another main by-product of the BSFL treatment is a valuable residue known as frass, a mixture of BSFL excretion, uneaten substrates, and shed exoskeletons [30,87]. The frass produced by BSFL’s bioconversion of organic waste is approximately 30 to 50% of the initial weight of the feeding substrates [88]. Gao et al. [56] recommended harvesting the frass when 40–90% of the larvae have transitioned into the prepupae stage. A relatively new idea is to use BSFL frass as an organic fertilizer, since frass has similar characteristics with immature compost [16]. The sustainable use of BSFL frass fertilizer can reduce the over-reliance on costly mineral fertilizers that have harmful effects on the soil and environmental health [89]. The high macronutrient (nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K)), micronutrient, and organic matter content of frass are all readily available for agricultural use [90,91]. However, BSFL frass must first undergo post-processing since the frass is not mature, as BSFL composting occurs very rapidly. Maturation is a critical process to reduce microbial activity in the frass and reduce the competition for oxygen and nitrogen with the soil in which it is applied. Frass maturation can be achieved by vermicomposting and anaerobic digestion [49]. Bulak et al. [92] investigated methane production from insect residues such as BSFL frass. They found that the obtained biomethane potential is similar to the substrate used in biogas plants, demonstrating the feasibility of this method to their utilization and producing a better-quality frass as a fertilizer. However, since biogas plants are quite costly to operate, composting is the most basic approach, where the frass is left on a concrete floor under a roof for three weeks before being applied to the soil.
Post-treatment is necessary to stabilize the BSFL frass. Several studies have shown that using frass as a fertilizer promotes plant growth. There is no significant difference in plant growth when using frass and regular compost [87]. BSFL frass could boost soil organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus [93], while the chitin in the frass increases plant resistance against diseases and pathogens. However, it is worth noting that fresh BSFL frass can cause stunted plant growth if applied inappropriately. For example, Alattar et al. [90] attributed the poor corn plant growth to the low porosity of fresh frass, which could have created anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Plants need oxygen for respiration and require well-aerated soil for healthy growth. Song et al. [94] studied the effects of further composting on frass quality. They reported that the pak choi fertilized with BSFL frass composted using the forced aeration method produced a higher yield than those fertilized with fresh frass. This study indicates that further composting could increase the quality of BSFL frass used as a fertilizer to encourage food crop development. Therefore, in-depth research on the post-treatment of BSFL frass is needed to improve the quality of frass as an organic fertilizer and make it a better alternative for plant growth than chemical fertilizers.

5. Direction of Further Research

The BSF waste treatment system can be operated on a small scale to focus on a smaller scope. According to the Khazanah Research Institute (KRI), household waste is the primary source of municipal solid waste (MSW) and makes up 44.5% (6.1 million tons) of total solid waste each year. The average amount of uneaten food thrown away by Malaysian households is between 0.5–0.8 kg per day, and this amount is expected to increase with population growth [95]. The increasing amount of food waste could exacerbate the issues related to landfills, such as foul odors, toxic leachate, greenhouse gas emissions, and vermin infestations [96]. One way to resolve these issues is by dealing with the roots of the problems, for example, implementing a BSF system at home to recycle food waste into beneficial products, such as organic fertilizers for home gardens or selling it for profit. The home BSF system does not have transportation costs because it uses uneaten food as a larval feeding substrate. This review has summarized the entire process to help the public understand the operation of the BSF system. However, there are several challenges when operating the BSF system at home, such as odor and limited space. There is a need to design a home-scale BSF system that uses less space, is less time-consuming, and requires little expertise to encourage any interested individual to participate in the mission to reduce food waste. Therefore, further research is needed to determine the optimal conditions for BSF larvae development and an effective waste treatment system that considers the critical environmental factors in residential areas. The user-friendly and well-designed BSF bin, where the larva may be self-harvested and are durable to the Malaysian climate and environment, should also be noted. The final process of organic waste treatment using BSFL will produce valuable products, generally from larvae or prepupa as an animal feed source, and frass as fertilizer. The larvae can be fed raw to pets and fish, or extracted BSF oil can be used for animal feed formulation. BSF oil is mainly high in saturated fatty acids, especially lauric acid, which is essential in food supplementation for growth performance and antioxidative capacity in livestock [97]. However, the methodology of lauric acid extraction from BSF oil is not fully developed. Hence, it is a need to cover this topic in future studies. In addition to larvae, BSF frass accumulates as a significant byproduct that has the potential to supplement or replace conventional fertilizers. However, BSF bioconversion is a rapid process and produces immature frass. Thus, it is suggested that further research be conducted to investigate the further treatment of frass by using other invertebrates as an composting agent to improve the quality of frass and its fertilizing effects, compared to conventional composting.

6. Conclusions

The researchers believe that the BSF is a “dynamic creature” with many benefits, and that it is an excellent composting agent with minimal environmental impact [98]. BSFL treatment is an evolving technique for converting organic waste into high-value products that are sustainable and commercially viable. Under similar conditions, the nutritional content of organic wastes has the highest impact on process performance [45]. Gold et al. [59] stated that the efficiency of BSFL treatment is dependent on the rate of bioconversion, larval weight, and composition of larval biomass (protein and lipid content), which varies depending on the waste composition and amount of organic waste. The process performance is also dependent on the optimum range of operating parameters stated in this review. The two main by-products from the BSFL waste treatment system are the larvae and prepupae, which can be used as animal feed, while the residue can be used as organic fertilizer. Generally, the BSF organic waste treatment system is a green technology that reduces organic waste, even if the reduction is on a small scale.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.F.A. and I.K.A.; methodology, N.F.A.; validation, I.K.A. and N.E.A.B.; resources, N.F.A. and I.K.A.; data curation, N.F.A.; writing—original draft preparation, N.F.A.; writing—review and editing, N.F.A., I.K.A., N.E.A.B., F.S., N.A.A.J. and N.A.A.; visualization, N.F.A.; supervision, I.K.A.; project administration, N.F.A. and N.A.A.; funding acquisition, I.K.A., N.E.A.B. and F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was sponsored by Ministry of Education, Malaysia, under the Malaysian Research University Network (MRUN) Grant—LRGS MRUN/F2/01/2019/3.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Education of Malaysia’s financial support under the Malaysian Research University Network (MRUN) Grant (LRGS MRUN/F2/01/2019/3). The authors would also like to thank all those who have made contributions to this project, including the anonymous reviewers, for their helpful suggestions and comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Shitu, A.; Izhar, S.; Tahir, T.M. Sub-critical water as a green solvent for production of valuable materials from agricultural waste biomass: A review of recent work. Glob. J. Environ. Sci. Manag. 2015, 1, 255–264. [Google Scholar]
  2. Weng, Y.C.; Fujiwara, T. Examining the effectiveness of municipal solid waste management systems: An integrated cost-benefit analysis perspective with a financial cost modeling in Taiwan. Waste Manag. 2011, 31, 1393–1406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Ioannou, T.; Bazigou, K.; Katsigianni, A.; Fotiadis, M.; Chroni, C.; Manios, T.; Daliakopoulos, I.N.; Tsompanidis, C.; Michalodimitraki, E.; Lasaridi, K. The A2UFood Training Kit: Participatory Workshops to Minimize Food Loss and Waste. Sustainability 2022, 14, 2446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kaza, S.; Yao, L.C.; Bhada-Tata, P.; Woerden, F.V. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. Available online: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/knowledge-centre/resources/what-waste-20-global-snapshot-solid-waste-management-2050 (accessed on 9 March 2022).
  5. Periathamby, A.; Hamid, F.S.; Khidzir, K. Evolution of solid waste management in Malaysia: Impacts and implications of the solid waste bill, 2007. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2009, 11, 96–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Komakech, A.J.; Sundberg, C.; Jönsson, H.; Vinnerås, B. Life cycle assessment of biodegradable waste treatment systems for sub-Saharan African cities. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2015, 99, 100–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Isibika, A.; Vinnerås, B.; Kibazohi, O.; Zurbrügg, C.; Lalander, C. Pre-treatment of banana peel to improve composting by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.), Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Waste Manag. 2019, 100, 151–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Chowdhury, F.R.; Nur, Z.; Hassan, N.; Seidlein, L.; Dunachie, S. Pandemics, pathogenicity and changing molecular epidemiology of cholera in the era of global warming. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 2017, 16, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Diener, S.; Zurbrügg, C.; Tockner, K. Conversion of organic material by black soldier fly larvae: Establishing optimal feeding rates. Waste Manag. Res. 2009, 27, 603–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. De Smet, J.; Wynants, E.; Cos, P.; Van Campenhout, L. Microbial Community Dynamics during Rearing of Black. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2018, 84, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Zurbrügg, C.; Dortmans, B.; Fadhila, A.; Verstappen, B.; Diener, S. From Pilot to Full Scale Operation of a Waste-To-Protein Treatment Facility. Detritus 2018, 1, 18–22. [Google Scholar]
  12. Nguyen, T.T.X.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Vanlaerhoven, S. Ability of Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae to Recycle Food Waste. Environ. Entomol. 2015, 44, 406–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Meneguz, M.; Schiavone, A.; Gai, F.; Dama, A.; Lussiana, C.; Renna, M.; Gascoac, L. Effect of rearing substrate on growth performance, waste reduction efficiency and chemical composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2018, 9, 5776–5784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ur Rehman, K.; Rehman, A.; Cai, M.; Zheng, L.; Xiao, X.; Somroo, A.A.; Wang, H.; Li, W.; Yu, Z.; Zhang, J. Conversion of mixtures of dairy manure and soybean curd residue by black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.). J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 154, 366–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Liu, X.; Chen, X.; Wang, H.; Yang, Q.; ur Rehman, K.; Li, W.; Cai, M.; Li, Q.; Mazza, L.; Zhang, J.; et al. Dynamic changes of nutrient composition throughout the entire life cycle of black soldier fly. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Xiao, X.; Mazza, L.; Yu, Y.; Cai, M.; Zheng, L.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Yu, J.; Van Huis, A.; Yu, Z.; Fasulo, S.; et al. Ef fi cient co-conversion process of chicken manure into protein feed and organic fertilizer by Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae and functional bacteria. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 217, 668–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Stocker, T.F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; Allen, S.K.; Boschung, J.; Nauels, A.; Xia, Y.; Bex, V.; Midgley, P.M. Technical Summary. In Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis; Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2014; pp. 31–116. [Google Scholar]
  18. Ma, J.; Lei, Y.; ur Rehman, K.; Yu, Z.; Zhang, J.; Li, W.; Li, Q.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Zheng, L. Dynamic Effects of Initial pH of Substrate on Biological Growth and Metamorphosis of Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Environ. Entomol. 2018, 47, 159–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Lalander, C.; Diener, S.; Zurbrügg, C.; Vinnerås, B. Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 208, 211–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Van Huis, P.; Van Itterbeeck, A.; Klunder, J.; Mertens, H.; Halloran, E.; Muir, A.; Vantomme, G. Edible Insects. Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2013; pp. 45–55. [Google Scholar]
  21. Da Silva, G.D.P.; Hesselberg, T. A Review of the Use of Black Soldier Fly Larvae, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), to Compost Organic Waste in Tropical Regions. Neotrop. Entomol. 2020, 49, 151–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Sheppard, D.C.; Newton, G.L. A value added manure management system using the black soldier fly. Bioresour. Technol. 1994, 50, 275–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Čičková, H.; Newton, G.L.; Lacy, R.C.; Kozánek, M. The use of fly larvae for organic waste treatment. Waste Manag. 2015, 35, 68–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kumar, S.; Negi, S.; Mandpe, A.; Singh, R.V.; Hussain, A. Rapid composting techniques in Indian context and utilization of black soldier fly for enhanced decomposition of biodegradable wastes—A comprehensive review. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 227, 189–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Surendra, K.C.; Tomberlin, J.K.; van Huis, A.; Cammack, J.A.; Heckmann, L.H.L.; Khanal, S.K. Rethinking organic wastes bioconversion: Evaluating the potential of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.)) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (BSF). Waste Manag. 2020, 117, 58–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Tomberlin, J.K.; Sheppard, D.C.; Joyce, J.A. Selected life-history traits of black soldier flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) reared on three artificial diets. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 2002, 95, 379–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Diener, S.; Studt Solano, N.M.; Roa Gutiérrez, F.; Zurbrügg, C.; Tockner, K. Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste Biomass Valorizat. 2011, 2, 357–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Makkar, H.P.S.; Tran, G.; Heuzé, V.; Ankers, P. State-of-the-art on use of insects as animal feed. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2014, 197, 1–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. St-Hilaire, S.; Sheppard, C.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Irving, S.; Newton, L.; McGuire, M.A.; Mosley, E.E.; Hardy, R.W.; Sealey, W. Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. J. World Aquac. Soc. 2007, 38, 59–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Diener, S.; Zurbrugg, C.; Gutierrez, F.R.; Nguyen, D.H.; Morel, A.; Koottatep, T.; Tockner, K. Black soldier fly larvae for organic waste treatment—Prospects and constraints. In Proceedings of the WaterSafe 2011 2nd WasteSafe 2011, 2nd International Conference on Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries, Khulna, Bangladesh, 13–15 February 2011; pp. 978–984. [Google Scholar]
  31. Ritika, P.; Satyawatiand, S.; Rajendra, P. Study on occurrence of black soldier fly larvae in composting of kitchen waste. Int. J. Res. Biosci. 2015, 4, 38–45. [Google Scholar]
  32. Furman, D.P.; Young, R.D.; Catts, P.E. Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus) as a Factor in the Natural Control of Musca domestica Linnaeus. J. Econ. Entomol. 1959, 52, 917–921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Singh, A.; Kumari, K. An inclusive approach for organic waste treatment and valorisation using Black Soldier Fly larvae: A review. J. Environ. Manag. 2019, 251, 109–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Raksasat, R.; Lim, J.W.; Kiatkittipong, W.; Kiatkittipong, K.; Ho, Y.C.; Lam, M.K.; Font-Palma, C.; Zaid, H.F.M.; Cheng, C.K. A review of organic waste enrichment for inducing palatability of black soldier fly larvae: Wastes to valuable resources. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 267, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Wang, Y.S.; Shelomi, M. Review of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) as Animal Feed and Human Food. Foods 2017, 6, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Diener, S.; Zurbrügg, C.; Tockner, K. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens and effects on its life cycle. J. Insects Food Feed. 2015, 1, 261–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Lohri, C.R.; Diener, S.; Zabaleta, I.; Mertenat, A.; Zurbrügg, C. Treatment technologies for urban solid biowaste to create value products: A review with focus on low- and middle-income settings. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 2017, 16, 81–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Pang, W.; Hou, D.; Chen, J.; Nowar, E.E.; Li, Z.; Hu, R.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Yu, Z.; Li, Q.; Wang, S. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon and nitrogen conversion in food wastes by the black soldier fly. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 260, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Lalander, C.; Ermolaev, E.; Wiklicky, V.; Vinnerås, B. Process efficiency and ventilation requirement in black soldier fly larvae composting of substrates with high water content. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 729, 138–968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Cheng, J.Y.K.; Chiu, S.L.H.; Lo, I.M.C. Effects of moisture content of food waste on residue separation, larval growth and larval survival in black soldier fly bioconversion. Waste Manag. 2017, 67, 315–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Jucker, C.; Erba, D.; Leonardi, M.G.; Lupi, D.; Savoldelli, S. Assessment of Vegetable and Fruit Substrates as Potential Rearing Media for Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae. Environ. Entomol. 2017, 46, 1415–1423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Banks, I.J.; Gibson, W.T.; Cameron, M.M. Growth rates of black soldier fly larvae fed on fresh human faeces and their implication for improving sanitation. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2014, 19, 14–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Lalander, C.; Diener, S.; Magri, M.E.; Zurbrügg, C.; Lindström, A.; Vinnerås, B. Faecal sludge management with the larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)—From a hygiene aspect. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 458–469, 312–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Bortolini, S.; Macavei, L.I.; Saadoun, J.H.; Foca, G.; Ulrici, A.; Bernini, F.; Malferrari, D.; Setti, L.; Ronga, D.; Maistrello, L. Hermetia illucens (L.) larvae as chicken manure management tool for circular economy. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 262, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Mazza, L.; Ur Rehman, K.; Salvatore, F.; Tomberlin, J.K. Management of chicken manure using black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae assisted by companion bacteria. Waste Manag. 2020, 102, 312–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Oonincx, D.G.A.B.; Van Huis, A.; Van Loon, J.J.A. Nutrient utilisation by black soldier flies fed with chicken, pig, or cow manure. J. Insects Food Feed. 2015, 1, 131–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Miranda, C.D.; Cammack, J.A.; Tomberlin, K. Life-History Traits of the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Animals 2019, 9, 281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  48. Li, Q.; Zheng, L.; Qiu, N.; Cai, H.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Yu, Z. Bioconversion of dairy manure by black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) for biodiesel and sugar production. Waste Manag. 2011, 31, 1316–1320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Myers, H.M.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Lambert, B.D.; Kattes, D. Development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae fed dairy manure. Environ. Entomol. 2008, 37, 11–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Dortmans, B.M.A.; Diener, S.; Verstappen, B.M.; Zurbrügg, C. Black Soldier Fly Biowaste Processing—A Step-by-Step Guide Eawag; Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology: Dübendorf, Switzerland, 2017; pp. 6–54. [Google Scholar]
  51. Booth, D.C.; Sheppard, C. Oviposition of the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Eggs, Masses, Timing, and Site Characteristics. Environ. Entomol. 1984, 14, 421–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Sripontan, Y.; Juntavimon, T.; Songin, S.; Chiu, C.I. Egg-trapping of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) with various wastes and the effects of environmental factors on egg-laying. Khon Kaen Agric. J. 2017, 45, 179–184. [Google Scholar]
  53. Ewusiea, E.A.; Kwapong, P.K.; Ofosu-Buduc, G.; Sandrock, C.; Akumahc, A.M.; Narteyc, E.K.; Tetegaga, C.; Agyakwah, S.K. The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Trapping and culturing of wild colonies in Ghana. Sci. Afr. 2019, 5, e00134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Caruso, D.; Devic, E.; Subamia, I.W.; Talamond, P.; Baras, E. Technical Handbook of Domestication and Production of Diptera Black Soldier Fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens, Stratiomyidae; PT Penerbit IPB Press: Bogor, Indonesia, 2013; p. 141. [Google Scholar]
  55. Boaru, A.; Vig, A.; Ladoşi, D.; Păpuc, T.; Struţi, D.; Georgescu, B. The use of various oviposition structures for the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomydae) in improving the reproductive process in captivity. Adv. Agric. Bot. 2019, 11, 12–20. [Google Scholar]
  56. Nguyen, T.T.X.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Vanlaerhoven, S. Influence of resources on Hermetia illucens. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. J. Med. Entomol. 2013, 50, 898–906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Gao, Z.; Wanga, W.; Lu, X.; Zhu, F.; Liu, W.; Wang, X.; Lei, C. Bioconversion performance and life table of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on fermented maize straw. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 230, 974–980. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Wong, C.; Lim, J. Optimization of self-fermented period of waste coconut endosperm destined to feed black soldier fly larvae in enhancing the lipid and protein yields. Renew. Energy 2017, 111, 646–654. [Google Scholar]
  59. Li, W.; Li, M.; Zheng, L.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Yu, Z.; Ma, Z.; Li, Q. Simultaneous utilization of glucose and xylose for lipid accumulation in black soldier fly. Biotechnol. Biofuels 2015, 8, 4–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  60. Gold, M.; Tomberlin, J.K.; Diener, S.; Zurbrügg, C.; Mathys, A. Decomposition of biowaste macronutrients, microbes, and chemicals in black soldier fly larval treatment: A review. Waste Manag. 2018, 82, 302–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Zhou, Z.; Karlsen, Ø.; He, S.; Olsen, R.E.; Yao, B.; Ringø, E. The effect of dietary chitin on the autochthonous gut bacteria of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). Aquac. Res. 2013, 44, 1889–1900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Tinder, A.C.; Puckett, R.T.; Turner, N.D.; Cammack, J.A.; Tomberlin, J.K. Bioconversion of sorghum and cowpea by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.)) larvae for alternative protein production. J. Insects Food Feed 2017, 3, 121–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Gold, M.; Cassar, C.M.; Zurbrügg, C.; Kreuzer, M.; Boulos, S.; Diener, S.; Mathys, A. Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Manag. 2020, 102, 319–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Jalil, N.A.A.; Abdullah, S.H.; Ahmad, I.K.; Basri, N.E.A.; Mohamed, Z.S. Decomposition of food waste from protein and carbohydrate sources by black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens L. J. Environ. Biol. Environ. Biol. 2021, 42, 756–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Meneguz, M.; Gasco, L.; Tomberlin, J.K. Impact of pH and feeding system on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L.; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Choi, S.; Hassanzadeh, N. BSFL Frass: A Novel Biofertilizer for Improving Plant Health While Minimizing Environmental Impact. Candian Sci. Fair J. 2019, 2, 41–46. [Google Scholar]
  67. Parra Paz, A.S.; Carrejo, N.S.; Gómez Rodríguez, C.H. Effects of Larval Density and Feeding Rates on the Bioconversion of Vegetable Waste Using Black Soldier Fly Larvae Hermetia illucens (L.), (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Waste Biomass Valoriz. 2015, 6, 1059–1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Bakker, L. Product market applications of the Black Soldier Fly. Bachelor’s Thesis, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  69. Ushakova, N.; Dontsov, A.; Sakina, N.; Basrakov, A. Antioxidative Properties of Melanins and Ommochromes from Black Soldier Fly Hermetia illucens. Biomolecules 2019, 9, 408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  70. Ray Gyan, W.; Ayiku, S.; Yang, Q. Effects of Replacing Fishmeal with Soybean Products in Fish and Crustaceans Performance. J. Aquac. Res. Dev. 2019, 10, 573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  71. Barragan-Fonseca, K.B.; Dicke, M.; Van Loon, J.J.A. Nutritional value of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) and its suitability as animal feed—A review. J. Insects Food Feed 2017, 3, 105–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Abd El-Hack, M.E.; Shafi, M.E.; Alghamdi, W.Y.; Abdelnour, S.A.; Shehata, A.M.; Noreldin, A.E.; Ashour, E.A.; Swelum, A.A.; Al-Sagan, A.A.; Alkhateeb, M.; et al. Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) meal as a promising feed ingredient for poultry: A comprehensive review. Agriculture 2020, 10, 339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Yildirim-Aksoy, M.; Eljack, R.; Beck, B.H. Nutritional value of frass from black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens, in a channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, diet. Aquac. Nutr. 2020, 26, 812–819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Adeoye, A.A.; Akegbejo-Samsons, Y.; Fawole, F.J.; Davies, S.J. Preliminary assessment of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larval meal in the diet of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus): Impact on growth, body index, and hematological parameters. J. World Aquac. Soc. 2020, 51, 1024–1033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Devic, E.; Leschen, W.; Murray, F.; Little, D.C. Growth performance, feed utilization and body composition of advanced nursing Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed diets containing Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal. Aquac. Nutr. 2018, 24, 416–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Secci, G.; Mancini, S.; Iaconisi, V.; Gasco, L.; Basto, A.; Parisi, G. Can the inclusion of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) in diet affect the flesh quality/nutritional traits of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after freezing and cooking? Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 70, 161–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Bruni, L.; Belghit, I.; Lock, E.J.; Secci, G.; Taiti, C.; Parisi, G. Total replacement of dietary fish meal with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae does not impair physical, chemical or volatile composition of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). J. Sci. Food Agric. 2020, 100, 1038–1047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Spranghers, T.; Ottoboni, M.; Klootwijk, C.; Ovyn, A.; Deboosere, S.; De Meulenaer, B.; Michiels, J.; Eeckhout, M.; De Clercq, P.; De Smet, S. Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2017, 97, 2594–2600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Giannetto, A.; Oliva, S.; Ceccon Lanes, C.F.; de Araújo Pedron, F.; Savastano, D.; Baviera, C.; Parrino, V.; Lo Paro, G.; Spanò, N.C.; Cappello, T.; et al. Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomydae) larvae and prepupae: Biomass production, fatty acid profile and expression of key genes involved in lipid metabolism. J. Biotechnol. 2020, 307, 44–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Wang, S.Y.; Wu, L.; Li, B.; Zhang, D. Reproductive potential and nutritional composition of Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) prepupae reared on different organic wastes. J. Econ. Entomol. 2020, 113, 527–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Bessa, L.W.; Pieterse, E.; Marais, J.; Dhanani, K.; Hoffman, L.C. Food Safety of Consuming Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae: Microbial, Heavy Metal and Cross-Reactive Allergen Risks. Foods 2021, 10, 1934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Shan, H.; Tan, G.; Fischer, A.R.H.; Tinchan, P.; Steenbekkers, L.P.A.; Van Trijp, H.C.M. Insects as food: Exploring cultural exposure and individual experience as determinants of acceptance. FOOD Qual. Prefer. 2015, 42, 78–89. [Google Scholar]
  83. Lombardi, A.; Vecchio, R.; Borrello, M.; Caracciolo, F.; Cembalo, L. Willingness to pay for insect-based food: The role of information and carrier. Food Qual. Prefer. 2018, 72, 177–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Sawangkeaw, R.; Ngamprasertsith, S. A review of lipid-based biomasses as feedstocks for biofuels production. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 25, 97–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Mai, H.C.; Dao, N.D.; Lam, T.D.; Nguyen, B.V.; Nguyen, D.C.; Bach, L.G. Purification Process, Physicochemical Properties, and Fatty Acid Composition of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus) Larvae Oil. JAOCS J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2019, 96, 1303–1311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Smets, R.; Verbinnen, B.; Van De Voorde, I.; Aerts, G.; Claes, J.; Van Der Borght, M. Sequential Extraction and Characterisation of Lipids, Proteins, and Chitin from Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae, Prepupae, and Pupae. Waste Biomass Valoriz. 2020, 11, 6455–6466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Ishak, S.; Kamari, A.; Yusoff, S.N.M.; Halim, A.L.A. Optimisation of biodiesel production of Black Soldier Fly larvae rearing on restaurant kitchen waste. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2018, 1097, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  88. Klammsteiner, T.; Turan, V.; Juárez, M.F.D.; Oberegger, S.; Insam, H. Suitability of black soldier fly frass as soil amendment and implication for organic waste hygienization. Agronomy 2020, 10, 1578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Quilliam, R.S.; Nuku-Adeku, C.; Maquart, P.; Little, D.; Newton, R.; Murray, F. Integrating insect frass biofertilisers into sustainable peri-urban agro-food systems. J. Insects Food Feed 2020, 6, 315–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Beesigamukama, D.; Mochoge, B.; Korir, N.; Musyoka, M.W.; Fiaboe, K.K.M.; Nakimbugwe, D.; Khamis, F.M.; Subramanian, S.; Dubois, T.; Ekesi, S.; et al. Nitrogen fertilizer equivalence of black soldier fly frass fertilizer and synchrony of nitrogen mineralization for maize production. Agronomy 2020, 10, 1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Attiogbe, F.K.; Ayim, N.Y.K.; Martey, J. Effectiveness of black soldier fly larvae in composting mercury contaminated organic waste. Sci. Afr. 2019, 6, e00205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Bulak, P.; Proc, K.; Kasprzycka, A.; Berus, W.; Bieganowski, A. Biogas generation from insects breeding post production wastes. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 244, 118777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Beesigamukama, D.; Mochoge, B.; Korir, N.; Musyoka, M.W.; Fiaboe, K.K.M.; Nakimbugwe, D.; Khamis, F.M.; Subramanian, S.; Dubois, T.; Ekesi, S.; et al. Biodegradation by composting of municipal organic solid waste into organic fertilizer using the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Int. J. Recycl. Org. Waste Agric. 2019, 8, 45–54. [Google Scholar]
  94. Frost, C.J.; Hunter, M.D. Recycling of nitrogen in herbivore feces: Plant recovery, herbivore assimilation, soil retention, and leaching losses. Oecologia 2007, 151, 42–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Alattar, M.; Alattar, F.; Popa, R. Effects of microaerobic fermentation and black soldier fly larvae food scrap processing residues on the growth of corn plants (Zea mays). Plant Sci. Today 2016, 3, 57–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Song, S.; Ee, A.W.L.; Tan, J.K.N.; Cheong, J.C.; Chiam, Z.Y.; Arora, S.; Ngai, L.W.; Tan, H.T.-W. Upcycling food waste using black soldier fly larvae: Effects of further composting on frass quality, fertilising effect and its global warming potential. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 288, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Ullah, S.; Zhang, J.; Xu, B.; Tegomo, A.F.; Sagada, G.; Zheng, L.; Wang, L.; Shao, Q. Effect of dietary supplementation of lauric acid on growth performance, antioxidative capacity, intestinal development and gut microbiota on black sea bream (Acanthopagrus schlegelii). PLoS ONE 2022, 17, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Sundaram, J.K.; Tan, Z.G. Achieving Food Security for All Malaysians; Khazanah Research Institute: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2019; pp. 1–78. [Google Scholar]
Sustainability 14 04565 g001 550
Figure 1. The life cycle of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens.
Figure 1. The life cycle of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens.
Sustainability 14 04565 g001
Sustainability 14 04565 g002 550
Figure 2. A flow of a basic BSF treatment process.
Figure 2. A flow of a basic BSF treatment process.
Sustainability 14 04565 g002
Sustainability 14 04565 g003 550
Figure 3. A flow diagram outlining the BSF process.
Figure 3. A flow diagram outlining the BSF process.
Sustainability 14 04565 g003
Table
Table 1. BSF waste treatment studies using different types of organic waste.
Table 1. BSF waste treatment studies using different types of organic waste.
SubstrateSubjectReference
Food wasteCarbon and nitrogen conversion in food wastes by BSFL.[37]
Effects of moisture/water content on larval growth and composting efficiency.[38,39]
Fruit and vegetable wasteThe potential of fruit and vegetable waste as rearing media for BSFL.[40]
Poultry feedThe BSFL nutrition composition changes throughout its life cycle.[15]
Human manureThe efficiency of BSFL bioconversion in human fecal waste treatment.[41]
The reduction of pathogenic microorganisms in human feces by BSFL.[42]
Animal manureUse of BSFL in chicken manure management.[43,44]
Effects of companion bacteria when BSFL converts chicken manure (CHM) into insect biomass.[15,43]
Comparison of the suitability of different manures as a feeding substrate for BSFL.[45,46]
Bioconversion of dairy manure by BSFL.[14,47,48]
Table
Table 2. Composition of the BSFL fed with different feeding substrates.
Table 2. Composition of the BSFL fed with different feeding substrates.
Feeding SubstrateBSF Larvae Composition (%)Reference
Crude ProteinFat
Chicken feed41.233.6[78]
Restaurant waste43.138.6[78]
Vegetable and fruit waste 39.930.8[79]
Cow manure 41.235.7[80]
Pig manure42.836.5[80]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Amrul, N.F.; Kabir Ahmad, I.; Ahmad Basri, N.E.; Suja, F.; Abdul Jalil, N.A.; Azman, N.A. A Review of Organic Waste Treatment Using Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens). Sustainability 2022, 14, 4565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084565

AMA Style

Amrul NF, Kabir Ahmad I, Ahmad Basri NE, Suja F, Abdul Jalil NA, Azman NA. A Review of Organic Waste Treatment Using Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens). Sustainability. 2022; 14(8):4565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084565

Chicago/Turabian Style

Amrul, Nur Fardilla, Irfana Kabir Ahmad, Noor Ezlin Ahmad Basri, Fatihah Suja, Nurul Ain Abdul Jalil, and Nur Asyiqin Azman. 2022. "A Review of Organic Waste Treatment Using Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens)" Sustainability 14, no. 8: 4565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084565

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop