1. Introduction
Globalisation, defined as the increasing interaction of people through the growth of the international flow of capital, ideas, and culture, produces special impacts and deserves special attention [
1]. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund identified four basic aspects of globalisation: trade and transactions, capital and investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination of knowledge. On the other hand, the academic literature commonly subdivides globalisation into three major areas: economic, environmental, and socio-political, mirroring the three pillars of sustainability [
1,
2,
3]. Taking into consideration the predictions that 64.1% and 85.9% of the developing and developed world, respectively, will be urbanised by 2050 [
4], in relation to the rapid growth in international trade, globalisation and tourism led to the creation of large ethnic subcultures, producing effects at the level of the urban macro-environment and affecting further structural changes [
5].
Firstly, demographic changes and related trends are apparent through tourist movements according to the criteria of direction, intensity, and frequency of visits to a destination throughout the year, hence the need for innovative tourist products by the criteria of programme, i.e., services and prices. Since mass market is individualised, all service providers offer specific and acceptable programmes for market groups. Within these groups, i.e., sub-segments of market niches, consumers show similar preferences and a tendency for specific and homogeneous behaviour while requiring a certain level of product quality.
Moreover, to track changes in the natural environment, monitoring development indicators can be considered, in relation also to the professional activity of an area. For instance, the mass concentration of tourists in certain areas in time-determined, short periods throughout the year results in the excessive use of space, thereby challenging its development continuity. The concept of sustainable development becomes an integral part of strategic planning. Marketing activities in a destination incorporate specific spatial features as they are a prerequisite to the competitiveness of a destination and they foster efficient placement. Along with the continuity of sustainable development, the issues that should be taken into account are the rational use of resources, their optimal combining, harmonisation of space according to the appeal and acceptability of ambiance, active implementation of land management policies, and environmental preservation.
Additionally, cultural changes leave a trace at the level of confronting global cultural identity and specific interest of potential consumers. In the tourist market, there is a visible shift in preferences from standard products based on genuine natural elements in the destination (sea, sand, and sun) to specific tourist products, with additional efforts invested in activities that are concentrated around anthropogenic factors in the destination. Cultural globalisation resulted in a strong acceleration of cultural diffusion and exchange. This acceleration, to a great extent, is driven by the expansion and liberalisation of market forces, often dominated by northern countries [
6,
7]. Also, political changes and disasters caused by human factors result in uncertainty, which makes a destination less appealing to potential tourists. Studies show that safety represents one of the key factors based on which tourists choose a destination.
In general, global flows of goods, ideas, people, and capital are considered as a threat to urban sustainability in several ways [
8]. They can lead to the abandonment of traditional values and practices, and to the dismantling of the economic basis on which the survival of indigenous cultures depends on, while also producing an impact on the identity at local, regional, and macro-regional scale [
9,
10,
11]. Especially in the case of the Mediterranean Basin, the impact of globalisation due to the massive flows of people is significant [
12,
13,
14,
15], with urban areas facing great challenges. The fact that the Mediterranean is undoubtedly one of the leading tourist regions in the world [
16,
17,
18,
19] introduces another great challenge. Despite the availability of a large number of urban sustainability characterisation tools [
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27,
28,
29,
30,
31,
32,
33,
34,
35,
36,
37,
38,
39,
40,
41,
42,
43,
44,
45], the effects on the identity of the area and on urban sustainability holistically are difficult to be assessed [
46]. Based on a recent review, it seems that there is no framework assessing the impacts on the identity of the Mediterranean macro-region, while, in respect to urban sustainability assessment, the only framework that deals with the Mediterranean area is Ecological Footprint [
42], which assesses only the environmental pillar and not sustainability as a whole. Towards this direction of framing an assessment tool applicable to cities with common characteristics, the CAT-MED project [
32] delivered a set of indicators to be monitored by Mediterranean cities. This set is also supported by thresholds and a full calculation methodology. The rationale behind this initiative is that a coastal Mediterranean city (e.g., compact, dense, presenting complexity of uses with specific climatological characteristics and socio-cultural background) can barely produce comparable sustainability assessment results to northern European cities, even if the same sustainability index or system of indicators is used, leaving emblematic cities in the area encountering uncontrolled problems. Also, Leontidou [
47] highlighted similarities in the individual trajectories of urban growth, leading to convergent socio-spatial profiles and homogeneous economic structures [
47,
48]. Although insights into the elements that are common in Mediterranean cities are discussed in literature, their systematic identification, based on a bottom-up analysis aiming to seek the special characteristics that form the identity of the area backed by a methodology towards the preservation of the identity of these areas and their sustainable promotion and enhancement of urban sustainability, seems to be missing, at least to the authors’ knowledge [
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25,
26,
27,
28,
29,
30,
31,
32,
33,
34,
35,
36,
37,
38,
39,
40,
41,
42,
43,
44,
45].
This is to say that the extent to which globalisation due to the massive flows of visitors is affecting the identity of Mediterranean cities, their sustainability, and their identity is not yet explored.
The “Mediterranean identity” is a powerful concept that derives from environmental characteristics, cultural features, and, above all, from the spatial interactions between the two. The Mediterranean Basin is characterised by common symbolic elements, such as the sea, the climate, the landscape, the way of life, and much more. Euro-Mediterranean cities are historically characterised by high density and compactness. They experienced the phenomenon of urban sprawl directly linked to high population growth, trends in movement, and the spread of the automobile as the main mode of transportation. In parallel, a more general phenomenon of urbanisation seems to have been the driving force behind urban sprawl, related both to the Athens Charter in 1931 [
49] and the adoption of foreign urban development models, together with the influence of the North American cultural values. Today, several observations intend to retard this sprawl, mainly due to its negative impacts on agriculture and use of natural resources, as well as the considerable economic and environmental costs in transport and infrastructure [
50]. Despite the efforts already made to give greater importance to public transportation, the car remains predominant [
51]. The connection between historic centres, which are, in many cases, subjected to ambitious rehabilitation and renovation of public spaces (pedestrian areas, tram lines, etc.), with the neighbourhoods in the suburbs or even the peripheral to the metropolitan area, is one of the major challenges that the Euro-Mediterranean cities are facing [
52,
53,
54]. Considering investments, if one looks at the latest ESPON report [
55] on a European level, as well as several reports on the economies of countries in the Mediterranean Basin, they are characterised by relative poverty and high unemployment rates compared to other European regions. In a context of urbanisation, in recent years, Mediterranean cities experienced processes of profound economic and industrial restructuring. All Mediterranean cities seem to experience similar difficulties in answering strong socio-economic priorities; hence, the need for a comprehensive approach to climate issues and sustainable development is present. Furthermore, populations and activities depend on the fiscal resources of Mediterranean cities, and therefore, on part of the investment capacity. Moreover, the economic and fiscal crises that heavily hit Greece, Spain, and Portugal over the last decade, as well as the fluctuating and confusing austerity policies which are implemented in all European countries bordering the Mediterranean, amputated local authorities’ flexibility on investments.
To find the necessary resources for investments, Euro-Mediterranean cities face common challenges: devising solutions to make the city financially sustainable, finding new sources of funding and low-cost technical solutions, relying on European Union (EU) funds and implementing new financial mechanisms that will assist them to work towards urban sustainability, and using the tools of territorial and social cohesion that they already have. As a common strategy, international firms gradually displace the traditional local businesses, which poses significant consequences on unemployment. Moreover, the local economy seems to concentrate activities mainly in gastronomy, tourism [
56], and textile franchises. This trend results in people leaving the city centres to the tourists and the international firms, driving towards the loss of complexity of uses and functions. The outcome of the above is areas to be transformed into “theme parks” designed for tourists, where residential use is drastically reduced, together with small and traditional business. Thus, areas, mainly neighbourhoods and historical centres which were an example of the classical Mediterranean city model, are being transformed into mono-functional cities [
57]. The concentration and coexistence of multiple uses in small areas and the pressure exerted on this coastline is another important issue in terms of territorial, environmental, and socio-economic management. Indeed, the question that seems to trouble local and regional authorities is how to preserve a high quality of life for residents and, at the same time, maintain tourism as an important economic performance, by limiting the adverse impact of uncontrolled tourism masses on urban sustainability. These challenges inevitably put pressure on the metropolis of the area.
Consequently, Mediterranean (Med) cities are facing a loss of cohesion in its broadest sense. In the background, the different facets of diversity that are at stake are social diversity, cultural diversity, and age diversity. It is rather complex to simultaneously ensure peaceful relations within Mediterranean cities, to renovate and transform cities while maintaining buildings and housing accessible to low-income populations while avoiding speculation, and to avoid relegation spaces and increasing inequality. In the context of an economic and social crisis, which tends to exacerbate tensions, the issue of “living together” is more than pertinent.
This paper was initiated by the need to face the common challenges that emerge and affect the cities of the Mediterranean Basin, by making benefit of the intimate relationship between spatial configurations and specific background conditions, including planning, economic performance, and social issues. Such approaches may benefit from a comparative analysis of long-term urban trajectories, considering together the effects of sequential phases of urbanisation, sub-urbanisation, and re-urbanisation on identity and sustainability as a whole. In this regard, new approaches identifying morphological and/or functional specificities in urban development paths from local-scale and/or regional-scale analysis were identified as particularly welcome [
58].
Specifically, the focus of the study is on the northern shores of the Basin, namely the European urban areas (
Figure 1) with the main aim of this work to preserve the identity of the macro-region. The aims of the present study were (i) to identify the common symbolic characteristics that constitute the identity of the area under study, (ii) highlight their importance, and (iii) to estimate the level under which they are under threat, through a survey addressed in five cities that are considered to be highly representative of the Euro-Mediterranean area. The survey is accomplished in the framework of the European project “Alter Eco” [
59], funded by the Interreg Med territorial cooperation programme. The project provides the opportunity of testing, in representative Med cities, used as living labs, existing methodologies and tools in the field of sustainable tourism, with the aim of reaching holistic and realistic tourist strategies at the local and regional levels, which allow transferability in the Med territory.
Section 2 introduces a validated methodological framework for the identification and hierarchisation of the most important “Mediterranean identity” characteristics in urban areas, and for the estimation of the level under which these characteristics are considered to be under threat due to massive flows of visitors.
Section 3 presents the results of a survey addressed to 64 members of the Mediterranean community, representing five cities: Dubrovnik (Croatia), Genoa (Italy), Rhodes (Greece), Valencia (Spain), and Venice (Italy). It should be highlighted that the abovementioned areas were selected as representative urban areas of the wider area under study as they share a number of common characteristics which are further discussed in the material to follow (e.g., high density, compactness, rich cultural and natural heritage, etc.). In this light, the results presented herein can be extrapolated to other areas in the area under study (
Figure 1). A statistical analysis was implemented to reach a consensus and to provide the possibility of generalising the findings, and an intra-city comparison was also attempted.
Section 4 provides insights into the definition of the spatial dimension of sustainability and for the future determination/weighting of the case-specific component of an integrated urban sustainability assessment tool, building upon tools that, up to now, consider only the traditional pillars of sustainability (environment, economy, and society).
4. Discussion
The impact of globalisation, especially due to the massive flows of people, is significant [
12,
13,
14,
15], especially in the case of the Mediterranean Basin, with urban areas facing great challenges. Local customs and traditions are fading away and alienation is a result of the new lifestyle. Moreover, emblematic cities in the area encounter major problems. Venice’s status, for example, as a world heritage site is slowly sinking, with the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) threatening to slap the city on its in-danger list, a fate normally reserved for war-ravaged ruins and under-funded third-world sites. In 2016, UNESCO sounded the alarm bells by warning that Dubrovnik’s world heritage status was at risk, highlighting concerns about “the maximum number of tourists in regard to the sustainable carrying capacity of the city” and the “management of cruise ships” [
48]. In 2016, the United Nations World Tourism Organisation stated that Spain was the most-visited country in the world, with some 75.3 million visitors. Despite the perceived positive economic impact of the tourism industry in Spain, the country recently saw a wave of anti-tourist sentiment in some of the most popular destinations. Residents claim that the growing number of people visiting their cities is affecting their quality of life, driving up prices and crowding them out of their neighbourhoods.
The survey revealed several structural elements of the Mediterranean identity, and the basic symbolic characteristics of the Mediterranean area emerged. The prominent natural characteristics of the cities in the Mediterranean involve particularly fashioned lifestyles, as well as certain urban shapes. More specifically, the area is highly characterised by its complexity of urban fabrics and its compact urban structure. The typical Mediterranean city created a blend of compactness and complexity from the medieval period, facilitating certain activities, communication, and the exchange of goods and services among pedestrians. For example, this can be seen in the Emilia Romagna and the Veneto regions, where very similar urban forms may be observed. The latter shares a clear common denominator that originates from Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, or Modern urban development, namely the mix of economic and social activities in a very limited area where the pedestrian scale is of primary importance for the vast majority of transportations. Such features distinguish it from other urban models in the north or outside Europe, which are less efficient in the use of natural resources and are not strictly based on the connectivity of human relationships.
The concepts of the compactness, the complexity, and the basic services’ proximity related to urban settings and, in a more generic sense, to the city model, are key references for the Mediterranean cities. The compactness of a city means that the buildings are grouped together closely, creating a dense environment and sufficient population critical mass. In this light, the urban environment is characterised by a high level of different activities taking place, and therefore, a transfer of information and relationships. Complexity goes hand in hand with compactness, representing the diversity of human activities that are located in different parts of the city. Compactness and complexity mean that the city is much smaller than a sprawling, mono-functional city that, throughout the twentieth century, spread from the American concept of the city. In the mono-functional city model, communications and transportations are governed by two, relatively recent industries, automobile and petrol.
The relationship between the urban model—dense, compact, and complex in activities and uses, and easy to reach—and energy consumption is very different from that observed in sprawling cities. In other words, the city configuration—the city canvas—is not viewed purely from a territorial standpoint, but using a holistic approach, since it has a direct influence on both the mobility and the management of natural resources, energy efficiency, and essential aspects of social cohesion and economic development, all contributing to urban sustainability.
In this context, Mediterranean cities—dense, compact, complex cities—are historically organised around two types of spaces: squares and neighbourhood spaces. The architectural shapes, as well as intangible aspects, such as social relationships, lifestyles, relationships with space and time, although inherently elusive, are considered to be common features for urban areas in the Mediterranean, constituting part of the area’s identity.
Moreover, Mediterranean cities share some geographical and topographical features that define urban landscapes, which were adapted to their natural environment. Around the Mediterranean cities, there are often the same types of hills, ports, ledges, and rivers. The sea, sun, and wind contributed to the dissemination of architectural shapes such as patios, arcs, gardens, enclosures, etc., which are now the heritage of Mediterranean cities. Due to the nature of the Mediterranean climate, certain vegetation is common throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Olive trees constitute one of the most potent symbols of the regional environment and landscape. Additionally, the Mediterranean is recognised as one of the most original regions of the world with over half of the 25,000 plant species found there to be endemic to the region, e.g., some of the main cultivars, such as olive and vine. Despite its coastal orientation, the Mediterranean is a region of mountains. Houston [
61] calls the mountains and basins of the Mediterranean the enigmatic variations of tectonic geology: a symphony of the earth not easy to understand. The presence of unstable mountain chains and of young sedimentary rocks explains the frequency of earth tremors. There is also a long history of disastrous earthquakes in the Mediterranean and of volcanic activity in southern Italy and the Aegean.
Common climate, landscape, and vegetation, as well as social habits, resulted over the years in common dietary habits, forming the Mediterranean diet, which holds an exceptional place in international gastronomy. Moreover, the sea plays a dominant role in the Mediterranean complex. It acts not only as a significant economic driver and booster of tourism activity, but also as a meteorological catalyst, attracting low-pressure systems in the winter and acting as a kind of central heating in summer. Also, the sea functions as a passage for human migration and trade since the Neolithic times. The concentration of port-cities around the coasts reveals the ease with which cultures spread via the wet element. Salt and fish were its traditional primary resources; however, in the past decades, it took on new roles, attracting millions of tourists.
Undoubtedly, a great number of Mediterranean cities are characterised by their notable history, both in their cultural heritage and in their relationship with the past. Of course, this is not only specific to the Mediterranean cities. However, this a common feature which represents an urban constraint that can be used by the integration and preservation of historical sites in the city or the conservation and restoration of a certain urban unity in historic districts. In this sense, this history unquestionably has an impact on the attraction of tourists in Mediterranean cities. It should be highlighted that Christian urban forms, often inherited from the Romans, reflected local autonomy and pride, with open central squares, places of social exchange and placing of events, large town halls, and prominent churches.
Based on the survey results, the domination of the specific characteristics that reflect the thematic area of “urban structure” (category II,
Figure 3) is obvious (
Table 5). Indeed, historic palaces, port areas, and narrow streets are the most important characteristics for the Mediterranean area, attracting large masses of tourists and revealing the era of the past. Local specialities and central cafés in town squares are also determinant for the “Mediterranean identity”. In general, open squares, as places of local exchange are important characteristics of the areas under study, also enabling late-evening activity. Moreover, proximity to basic services and urban density, together with complexity of uses and functions, are key elements of the Mediterranean identity.
A limited number of specific characteristics were found to be under a high level of threat (
Table 6). Specifically, they were the following; (a) “fish that is bought from port/beaches” (V4), totally justified due to unsustainable demand, significant export activities, and ineffective management, (b) “mobility” (II15), and (c) “small shops in town centre” (IV1).