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Article

Exploring the Loci Responsible for Awn Development in Rice through Comparative Analysis of All AA Genome Species

by
Kanako Bessho-Uehara
1,2,
Yoshiyuki Yamagata
3,
Tomonori Takashi
4,
Takashi Makino
2,
Hideshi Yasui
3,
Atsushi Yoshimura
3 and
Motoyuki Ashikari
1,*
1
Bioscience and Biotechnology Center, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan
2
Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
3
Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
4
STAY GREEN Co., Ltd., 2-1-5 Kazusa-Kamatari, Kisarazu, Chiba 292-0818, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2021, 10(4), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040725
Submission received: 1 March 2021 / Revised: 31 March 2021 / Accepted: 6 April 2021 / Published: 8 April 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pre-breeding towards the Effective Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources)
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
Wild rice species have long awns at their seed tips, but this trait has been lost through rice domestication. Awn loss mitigates harvest and seed storage; further, awnlessness increases the grain number and, subsequently, improves grain yield in Asian cultivated rice, highlighting the contribution of the loss of awn to modern rice agriculture. Therefore, identifying the genes regulating awn development would facilitate the elucidation of a part of the domestication process in rice and increase our understanding of the complex mechanism in awn morphogenesis. To identify the novel loci regulating awn development and understand the conservation of genes in other wild rice relatives belonging to the AA genome group, we analyzed the chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSL). In this study, we compared a number of CSSL sets derived by crossing wild rice species in the AA genome group with the cultivated species Oryza sativa ssp. japonica. Two loci on chromosomes 7 and 11 were newly discovered to be responsible for awn development. We also found wild relatives that were used as donor parents of the CSSLs carrying the functional alleles responsible for awn elongation, REGULATOR OF AWN ELONGATION 1 (RAE1) and RAE2. To understand the conserveness of RAE1 and RAE2 in wild rice relatives, we analyzed RAE1 and RAE2 sequences of 175 accessions among diverse AA genome species retrieved from the sequence read archive (SRA) database. Comparative sequence analysis demonstrated that most wild rice AA genome species maintained functional RAE1 and RAE2, whereas most Asian rice cultivars have lost either or both functions. In addition, some different loss-of-function alleles of RAE1 and RAE2 were found in Asian cultivated species. These findings suggest that different combinations of dysfunctional alleles of RAE1 and RAE2 were selected after the speciation of O. sativa, and that two-step loss of function in RAE1 and RAE2 contributed to awnlessness in Asian cultivated rice.

1. Introduction

Rice is a major staple food that provides the caloric requirements for nearly one-fourth of the world’s population [1]. Two cultivated rice species, Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima, were independently domesticated in Asia and Africa from wild progenitors, O. rufipogon and O. barthii, respectively [2,3]. Compared with the wild progenitors, the cultivated rice species share a common set of morphological characteristics, including non-shattering seeds, white pericarp color, erect tiller growth, and short-awned or awnless seed [4,5,6,7]. These domesticated traits contributed to increasing rice yield, grain quality, and cultivation efficiency.
Wild rice species develop an awn, which is a long extension of the lemma tip. Under natural conditions, awns provide seed protection from predators and a unique means of seed dispersal via attachment to human clothes or animal fur [8]. However, in agriculture, awns represent a disadvantage as these needle-like structures cause skin irritation to farmers during harvesting and threshing. Rice awns also reduce bulk density, resulting in loose packing during storage. Unlike awns in barley or wheat, which contribute to grain filling, rice awns are not photosynthetically active because they lack chlorenchyma [9,10]. Some studies have reported that awn loss increases rice grain number, such that rice awns have a negative impact on yield [11,12]. The genes responsible for awn development have been suggested to have pleiotropic effects on grain number and morphology. Identifying the genes conditioning awn will provide insight into the domestication process in rice and may lead to increased rice grain production by breeding.
The long awn of wild progenitors was eliminated through rice domestication. Several major genes associated with awn development have been identified, including An-1/RAE1 [11,13], LABA1/An-2 [12,14], DL and OsETT2 [15], and RAE2/GAD1/GLA [16,17,18]. Genes suppressing awn formation have also been identified, including the YABBY transcription factor, TOB1 [19], and GLA1, which encodes the mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase [20]. In addition, a total of 35 loci with major and minor effects on rice awning in O. sativa have been reported in the Gramene database (https://archive.gramene.org/, accessed on 5 April 2021).
REGULATOR OF AWN ELONGATION 1 (RAE1, LOC_Os04g28280) [13] and RAE2 (LOC_Os08g37890) [16] were mainly targeted for the selection of an awnless phenotype in Asian rice domestication. RAE1 encodes the bHLH transcription factor and was also reported as An-1 [11]. O. sativa ssp. japonica carries a 4.4 kb transposable element (TE) in the promoter region of RAE1 to decrease its expression level, whereas O. sativa ssp. indica has a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the second exon, which causes an early translational stop [11,13]. RAE2 encodes Epidermal Patterning Factor-Like protein 1 (EPFL1), which acts as a small secretary peptide in panicles [16] and has also been reported as GAD1 [17] and GLA [18]. Several SNPs occur in the coding region of RAE2 in O. sativa, which cause frameshifts that change the number of cysteines essential for creating disulfide bonds that lead to suitable protein conformations. Dysfunctional alleles of RAE1 and RAE2 have been selected during Asian rice domestication [11,16].
To identify novel loci regulating awn development and to determine the degree of conservation of RAE1 and RAE2 genes in other wild rice relatives belonging to the AA genome group (Supplementary Figure S1) [21], we analyzed chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSL) and the whole-genome sequence data of a set of wild and cultivated rice species from the sequence read archive (SRA) database. CSSLs represent the whole genome of a donor line (i.e., wild rice species) in small and contiguous chromosome segments in a background (recurrent) line [22]. CSSLs allow the detection of responsible loci distributed across the genome using fewer plants than other approaches such as quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis, which use segregating populations (i.e., F2) or recombinant inbred lines [23,24,25,26]. To date, many series of CSSLs have been developed to identify complex trait loci in rice between cultivated species and their wild relatives [27,28,29,30,31]. In addition, the accumulation of genome information for many plant species by next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques impacts rice research. Whole-genome sequencing has been performed on model plants as well as many wild plant species, and their sequence information was collected in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database. These sequence data can be used for comparative analysis of target genes in many species and accelerate the research understanding the gene selection through plant domestication.
In the present study, we evaluate 11 CSSLs for identifying novel loci regulating awn development, which includes one CSSL named RRESL that is developed in this study. All the CSSLs had been fixed those recurrent parents into O. sativa ssp. japonica, and it makes us allow to compare the effect of locus from donor parent by comparison of target trait and genotype. We also compared the RAE1 and RAE2 genes of the donor parents of each CSSL to examine the relationship between causal mutations and the awn phenotype. Genome sequence data from 175 wild and cultivated rice accessions were analyzed for the sequence comparison of RAE1 and RAE2 and revealed the conserveness and selection history of both genes in the AA genome group.

2. Results

2.1. Development of a CSSL Whose Donor Parent Is O. glumaepatula and Recurrent Parent Is Koshihikari (O. sativa ssp. japonica)

The effects of chromosome segments derived from a donor parent can be widely compared by fixing the genetic background of recurrent parents with those of closely related species. We collected 10 sets of CSSL from previous studies whose recurrent parent is fixed with Asian cultivated rice, O. sativa ssp. japonica crossed with wild and cultivated rice species of the AA genome group (Table 1).
These 10 sets of CSSL included five CSSLs with the recurrent parent Taichung 65 (T65), which is O. sativa ssp. japonica, and donor parents are O. rufipogon [32], O. nivara [32], O. glumaepatula [33], and two sets of O. meridionalis [34]. The recurrent parent of the other five CSSLs is Koshihikari, which is also O. sativa ssp. Japonica, and donor parents are Kasalath (O. sativa) [24], O. nivara [35], O. rufipogon [30], O. glaberrima [29], and O. barthii [31]. Two CSSL sets (MER-IL and MER-IL[MER]) were derived from crossing T65 and W1625 (O. meridionalis); their recurrent parents are T65 but have different cytoplasmic DNA. MER-IL has T65 cytoplasmic DNA, and MER-IL[MER] has W1625 cytoplasmic DNA.
In addition to these 10 CSSLs from previous studies, we developed a new CSSL named RRESL whose donor parent is O. glumaepatula, a South American wild rice and whose recurrent parent is Koshihikari (Figure 1A). To develop RRESL, we used Koshihikari and IRGC105666 (O. glumaepatula). After producing F1, we produced BC4F2, BC5F2, and BC6F2 by successive backcross with Koshihikari. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) was performed to select the lines carrying one chromosome segment from the donor parent and covering the entire genome by all lines. Finally, RRESL was composed of 35 individuals of chromosome-substituted lines (Figure 1B) (see details in Materials and Methods).

2.2. Awn Phenotype in Wild Rice Species, Cultivated Rice Species, and CSSLs

According to the morphological data obtained from Oryzabase (https://shigen.nig.ac.jp/rice/oryzabase/, accessed on 15 July 2018) and previous studies [11,16,36], all the wild rice species possess awns. We presented 3 wild rice species: O. nivara, O. meridionalis, and O. glumaepatula, which are wild species producing long awns (Figure 2A). On the other hand, African and Asian cultivated rice do not possess awns, whereas O. sativa ssp. indica (aus) Kasalath produces awns (Figure 2B). Four lines were selected from different CSSLs (GLU-IL112, MER-IL113, KKSL210, BSL14), possessing representative awn phenotype (Figure 2C). Comparing the awn length among wild cultivars and selected CSSL lines, the awn lengths of CSSLs were consistently shorter than that of the donor parent (Figure 2D).
To identify the loci responsible for awn development, we planted 11 sets of CSSL in the research field. We measured the ratio of the awned spikelet in one panicle and the awn length per CSSL according to the standard evaluation system (SES) of rice provided by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) [37] during a period of 2 to 3 years (Supplementary Table S2). Data collected in 2016 are shown in Figure 3 as an example. Two to six lines in each CSSL showed the awned phenotype (Figure 3A–E and Supplementary Figure S2A–F). The awned spikelet ratio per panicle varied from 7 to 100%. Each CSSL showed diverse awn lengths, and the lines whose recurrent parents were T65 and Koshihikari had maximum awn lengths of 2.0 (Figure 3A,B) and 6.0 cm (Figure 3C–E), respectively. This suggests awn lengths tend to be shorter in T65 recurrent parent.

2.3. Identification of the Responsible Loci for Awn Development

We mapped the chromosome regions responsible for awn development on 12 rice chromosomes by comparing the genotypes and awn phenotypes of each CSSL (Figure 4, see detail in Material and Method). Chromosome-substituted regions are referred from the graphical genotypes previously reported (listed in Supplementary Table S2). Most CSSLs had functional regions for awn development on chromosomes 4 and 8. Notably, all lines carrying the chromosome 4 segment of the donor parent showed the awned phenotype throughout the study period (Supplementary Table S2), except MER-IL[MER]. To date, two genes responsible for awn development have been reported on chromosome 4: An-1/RAE1 [11,13] (chr4: 16731738..16735336) and LABA1/An-2 [12,14] (chr4: 25959399..25963504). All CSSLs carrying the RAE1 region of the donor parents (WK1962-IL16, 17, WK56-IL10, GLU-IL112, MER-IL113, 114, KKSL210, NSL10, 11, RSL11, GLSL13, 14, BSL14, and RRESL14; data are shown in Figure 3A–E and Supplementary Figure S2A–F) showed the awned phenotype. MER-IL[MER]15, 16, and 17 carry the chromosome 4 segment of W1625 (O. meridionalis), but these fragments do not cover the RAE1 region, and these 3 lines do not have an awn (Supplementary Figure S2C). Three CSSL lines carrying the chromosome segment harboring the LABA1 location (NSL11, GLSL14, and RRESL14) showed the awned phenotype. Seven CSSL lines (WK56-IL22, MER-IL[MER]34, NSL18, GLSL25, 26, BSL29, and RRESL25) carrying the long arm region of chromosome 8 overlapping RAE2 location (chr8: 23998787..24000176) showed a significant awned phenotype. Six CSSLs (GLU-IL115, MER-IL116 and 117, MER-IL[MER] 18 and 19, and BSL18; Figure 3 and Supplementary Figure S2) carrying the short arm of chromosome 5 in each donor parent presented awn. This region overlapped with a locus reported as a QTL, An7, derived from O. glumaepatula [38], which suggests that O. meridionalis and O. barthii may also carry functional An7. Two loci on chromosome 1 for awn development have been reported as An9 and An10 in O. meridionalis [36]. MER-IL102 carrying the long chromosome 1 segment of O. meridionaris covered the An9 and An10 regions, and the chromosome segment of the donor parent of MER-IL[MER]2 overlapped with the An9 locus, which indicates that the donor parent W1625 carries functional An9 and/or An10. WK56-IL2 carried a segment of the long arm of the chromosome 1 region covering the An10 locus, which suggests that WK56 (O. nivara) may carry functional An10. Recently, a locus responsible for awn length was detected on chromosome 2 and designated as qAWL2 [39]. This locus was narrowed down between a pair of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, RM13335 and RM13349, within a 157.4-kb region. Since this chromosome region overlaps the region covered by WK1962-IL7, GLU-IL106, and KKSL206, the QTL in chromosome 2 in W1926, WK35, and Kasalath may correspond to qAWL2.
We newly detected two loci responsible for awn development on chromosomes 7 and 11 (Figure 4). The short arm region of chromosome 7 was overlapped among 3 lines of CSSL, GLU-IL121 (O. glumaepatula) and MER-IL[MER]27 and 28 (O. meridionaris), and it was narrowed down between a pair of SSR markers RM1353 and RM7121 within a 2.31-Mb region. The short arm region of chromosome 11 in WK56-IL29 (O. nivara) and GLU-IL130 (O. glumaepatula) was overlapped between a pair of SSR marker RM7557 and RM3625 within a 4.33-Mb region. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the loci regulating awn development in these regions.
Among detected loci regulating the awn phenotype, RAE1 and RAE2 are well-conserved regions for awn development in wild rice species (Figure 4). Next, we further compared the sequences of RAE1 and RAE2 to identify the causal mutations using the Sanger sequencing data and deposited sequences of wild and cultivated rice species.

2.4. RAE1 and RAE2 Sequences in Donor and Recurrent Parents

The loss-of-function alleles of RAE1 and RAE2 were selected during Asian rice domestication [9,10,11,12]. Dysfunctional RAE1 alleles with a 4.4-kb transposable element (TE) in the promoter region that causes decreased RAE1 expression and a 1-bp deletion in the second exon that causes translational suspension by changing the stop codon have been reported in japonica and indica rice, respectively [11,13]. In RAE2, six cysteines are conserved for functional RAE2 protein; however, several dysfunctional alleles have lost or gained extra cysteines in Asian cultivated rice due to a frameshift caused by an insertion or deletion of several base pairs in the second exon [16,17].
To test whether the donor and recurrent parent of CSSLs possessed functional RAE1 and RAE2, we sequenced both genes in all CSSL parental lines using the Sanger sequencing method (Supplementary Figure S3A,B). A summary of the sequence results is shown in Table 2. T65 and Koshihikari, which were the recurrent parents of all CSSLs, both carried dysfunctional alleles of rae1 and rae2. Since neither T65 nor Koshihikari exhibit awns, the awnless phenotype corresponds to both genotypes. By contrast, the African cultivated species O. glaberrima has retained both functional alleles of RAE1 and RAE2. The awnless phenotype of O. glaberrima is caused not by RAE1 and RAE2 but by a loss of function in locus RAE3 on chromosome 6, which has not yet been identified [13]. O. sativa ssp. indica (aus) Kasalath has retained a functional allele of RAE1 and a dysfunctional allele of rae2, resulting in the awned phenotype. Similarly, W0106 (O. rufipogon) has a functional allele of RAE1 and a dysfunctional allele of rae2. The CSSL lines harboring the RAE1 region of chromosome 4 of Kasalath or W0106 (KKSL210 or RSL11) showed the awned phenotype, but those harboring the RAE2 region of chromosome 8 (KKSL224 or RSL22) did not show awn (Supplementary Table S2). These results support the presence of functional RAE1 but dysfunctional alleles of rae2 in both Kasalath and W0106.
Other wild rice species, as the donor parents, possessed functional alleles of both RAE1 and RAE2, and all the lines showed awn phenotype (Table 2).

2.5. Awn Development Is Regulated by Different Functional Combinations of RAE1 and RAE2 among the AA Genome Group

To understand the conservation of RAE1 and RAE2 function for the awned phenotype in wild and cultivated rice species, we compared the sequences of both genes using whole-genome sequence data from nine Oryza species of the AA genome group (O. sativa ssp. japonica, O. sativa ssp. indica, O. rufipogon, O. nivara, O. glumaepatula, O. meridionalis, O. glaberrima, O. barthii, and O. longistaminata). Sequencing reads from 175 accessions were mapped to the reference genome of O. sativa ssp. japonica and SNPs called. To judge the individuals with or without a TE insertion in the promoter region of RAE1, we focused on the boundary region of targeted TE insertion. Detection of the target region covering the 200 bp of transposon edge and flanking region of the TE insertion boundary (Supplementary Figure S4) allowed us to detect the specific TE in the RAE1 promoter region distinguished from the same sequence of TE in other genomic location. In the case of O. meridionalis, short reads of samples were not mapped to the TE inserted region upstream of RAE1 of O. sativa ssp. japonica genome. This is because there were multiple indels in the O. meridionalis genome near the TE inserted region compared with the O. sativa ssp. japonica genome (Supplementary Figure S5A). Therefore, we mapped short reads of 11 O. meridionalis samples from the SRA database to the O. meridionalis genome ver. 1.3 instead of using the O. sativa ssp. japonica genome as a reference. We confirmed that the short reads from O. meridionalis were mapped on the O. meridionalis genome seamlessly (Supplementary Figure S5B); thus, it suggests that there was no TE insertion in the RAE1 promoter region.
First, we retrieved 2.5 kb of the RAE1 gene coding region and the region around the TE insertion at the RAE1 promoter in 57 accessions of the Asian wild rice species O. rufipogon and 33 Asian cultivated species, including 21 japonica and 12 indica varieties. Comparative sequence analysis detected 33 common SNPs and seven insertions and deletions (indels) in the RAE1 coding region and one 4.4-kb TE in the RAE1 promoter region. According to those common variants, we identified two major mutations in Asian wild and cultivated rice varieties (Supplementary Figure S6A) and divided RAE1 into four haplotypes (RAE1-hap1 to RAE1-hap4) (Figure 5A). RAE1-hap1, which had no TE insertion in the promoter region and no 1-bp deletion in the second exon, was conserved in most O. rufipogon and may be a functional allele of RAE1. RAE1-hap2 had no 4.4-kb TE insertion but had a 1-bp deletion in the second exon of RAE1, which was found in O. sativa ssp. indica and may be a dysfunctional allele of rae1. RAE1-hap3 had 4.4-kb TE conserved in most O. sativa ssp. japonica and may be a dysfunctional allele of rae1. RAE1-hap4 had both 4.4-kb TE and 1-bp deletion in the second exon of RAE1, which may be a dysfunctional allele of rae1. RAE1-hap1 was conserved in most wild rice species and O. glaberrima, and RAE1-hap2 and RAE1-hap3 were detected in O. sativa ssp. indica and ssp. japonica. RAE1-hap4 was not observed in any accessions (Supplementary Table S4).
Next, we retrieved a 1.4 kb RAE2 sequence from each of the 175 accessions. We detected eight SNPs and 11 indels in this region. The RAE2 gene encoded a peptide-protein containing six cysteine residues (6C) that are essential for suitable conformation leading to awn development. Mis-conformation mutants caused loss of RAE2 function [16,17]. We identified five major indels in the second exon and classified six RAE2 haplotypes (RAE2-hap1 to RAE2-hap6) using these mutations (Supplementary Figure S6B and Figure 5B). RAE2-hap1 had no indels that were conserved among most O. rufipogon; RAE2-hap2 had a 6-bp deletion compared to RAE2 of O. rufipogon. These two haplotypes conserved 6C in the mature peptide region and, therefore, may be functional alleles. A 1-bp deletion in RAE2-hap3 occurred only in O. sativa ssp. japonica, where it caused a premature stop codon causing truncation that destroyed the fifth and sixth cysteine residues in RAE2, resulting in 4C type RAE2, which may be a dysfunctional allele of rae2. RAE2-hap4 (2-bp deletion) and hap5 (2-bp deletion) create a RAE2 protein frameshift to become a 7C mature peptide. The rare haplotype RAE2-hap6 (1-bp insertion) occurred only in O. sativa ssp. japonica and made a RAE2 protein frameshift to become a 7C mature peptide. RAE2 (7C type) may be a dysfunctional allele of rae2 (Figure 5B).
We categorized 175 rice accessions (123 wild and 52 cultivated rice; 18 O. barthii, 19 O. glaberrima, 18 O. glumaepatula, 11 O. meridionalis, 16 O. longistamianta, three O. nivara, 57 O. rufipogon, 12 O. sativa ssp. indica, and 21 O. sativa ssp. japonica) into four groups according to the haplotype combination at RAE1 and RAE2 (Supplementary Figure S6C). Group I is a combination of RAE1-hap1 and RAE2-hap1 or RAE2-hap2 (RAE2-hap1/2) (RAE1: functional, RAE2: functional), group II is a combination of RAE1-hap1 and RAE2-hap3/4/5/6 (RAE1: functional, rae2: dysfunctional), group III is a combination of RAE1-hap2/3/4 and RAE2-hap1/2 (rae1: dysfunctional, RAE2: functional), and group IV is a combination of RAE1-hap2/3/4 and RAE2-hap3/4/5/6 (rae1: dysfunctional, rae2: dysfunctional). The global distribution of these four groups is shown in Figure 5C. All accessions of wild rice species used in this study, including O. barthii, O. longistaminata, O. meridionalis, O. glumaepatura, O. nivara, and O. rufipogon, were classified into group I, with few exceptions. One accession in O. longistaminata (6.3%) was classified into group II (RAE1-hap1 and RAE2-hap4). RAE2-hap4 is a unique haplotype observed only in this accession of O. longistaminata. Two accessions in O. rufipogon (3.5%) were classified into group II (RAE1-hap1 and RAE2-hap5) (Figure 5C, Supplementary Table S4). One accession in O. rufipogon (1.7%) was classified into group III (RAE1-hap3 and RAE2-hap1).
Interestingly, all O. glaberrima (awnless) African cultivated rice were classified into group I (RAE1-hap1 and RAE2-hap1/2) (Figure 5C and Supplementary Table S4), which may contain functional alleles of both genes. The wild rice O. barhii (awned), which is the ancestor of O. glaberrima, was also classified into group I. These results indicate that RAE1 and RAE2 were not selected for awnlessness in African rice domestication. By contrast, Asian cultivated rice species O. sativa ssp. japonica and O. sativa ssp. indica carried diverse combinations of the RAE1 and RAE2 haplotypes. In O. sativa ssp. japonica, one accession (4.7%) was classified into group I, one accession (4.7%) was classified into group II, four accessions (19.0%) were classified into group III, and 15 accessions (71.4%) were classified into group IV. However, in O. sativa ssp. indica, three accessions (25%) were classified into group I, three accessions (25%) were classified into group II, one accession (8.3%) was classified into group III, and five accessions (41.7%) were classified into group IV. This result indicates that >70% of O. sativa ssp. japonica possess dysfunctional alleles of a combination of rae1 and rae2; and around half of O. sativa ssp. indica possess dysfunctional alleles of both genes.

3. Discussion

In rice, the awn is a conspicuous trait that is considered to have been influenced by domestication. To date, several genes have been identified for awn development in rice, including An-1/RAE1 [11,13], LABA1/An-2 [12,14], RAE2/GAD1/GLA [16,17,18], TOB1 [19], and GLA1 [20]; among these, An-1/RAE1, LABA1/An-2, and RAE2/GAD1/GLA appear to have been selected through Asian rice domestication [11,12,16]. To explore the novel loci for regulating awn development and to clarify the conservation of RAE1 and RAE2 gene function among the AA genome rice group, we examined 11 sets of CSSL by comparing genotypes and awn phenotypes.
According to the comparative analysis among 11 CSSLs, two to six lines in each CSSL showed the awn phenotype, and awn length was consistently shorter than that of the donor parent. This suggests that each wild rice species of the AA genome group possesses two to six genes that promote awn elongation, and a single locus was insufficient to attain the awn length of the donor parent. We detected several loci related to awn development on chromosomes 1, 2, 5, 7, and 11. Some of these loci were previously reported, as An9 and An10 on chromosome 1, qAWL2 on chromosome 2, and An7 on chromosome 5, although not all of these genes have been identified to date. Two regions on chromosomes 7 and 11 have not been reported for awn development; these are unidentified loci conserved in the donor parents of O. glumaepatura, O. meridionalis, and O. nivara in our CSSL set. Comparing multiple sets of CSSL made it possible to identify the loci that have not been detected by QTL analysis or single CSSL analysis.
We also detected that chromosome segments located on chromosomes 4 and 8 were conserved in most of all wild rice species. There are two genes reported on chromosome 4, RAE1 and LABA1. All the CSSL lines harboring the RAE1 locus showed awn phenotype, but a few lines harboring the LABA1 locus present awn. These observations suggest that RAE1, not LABA1, is the major and common locus on chromosome 4 for awn development among the AA genome group. In addition, most of the CSSL lines harboring RAE2 locus also showed awn. Sanger sequence results show the functional RAE1 and RAE2 correlate with awn phenotypes in CSSLs. Previous QTL studies of wild rice species also found that these two regions on chromosomes 4 and 8 have significant effects on awn length [40,41]. These results indicate that functional RAE1 and RAE2 are conserved in AA genome rice species.
The number of loci regulating awn development has been reported so far, but a comprehensive understanding about which wild species possess which loci has not been clarified. By using the CSSL set derived from all AA genome group species, we were able to estimate which species have which genes/loci in common and to find new loci. On the other hand, the study using CSSLs also has a weak point. CSSL cannot account for the effects of cooperative genes located in different chromosome regions. Indeed, none of the awned lines among the various CSSLs used in this study attained the awn length or awned ratio of the donor parents. Additive or synergetic effects by multiple loci would explain awn length and awned seed ratio in original wild species. Combination of the loci by the crossing between awned CSSL lines would reveal the relationship of responsible genes. Pyramiding all of the loci detected in this research would mimic awn length and ratio in the original wild donor parent.
RAE1/An-1 influences the formation of awn primordia by regulating cell division [11], and RAE2/GAD1/GLA regulates awn length by promoting cell division at the tip of the lemma [16,17]. An-1/RAE1 and RAE2/GAD1/GLA work independently for awn development and show additive effects [13,42]. The combination haplotypes of RAE1 and RAE2 in donor and recurrent parents are consistent with their awn phenotypes, except for O. glaberrima. It is reported that the awnless phenotype of O. glaberrima is caused not by RAE1 and RAE2 but by a loss of function in the RAE3 locus on chromosome 6 [13]. Awn phenotype was not observed in all CSSL lines harboring the RAE3 locus in this study. This suggests RAE3 locus cannot produce awn itself, but the loss of function of RAE3 diminished awn phenotype, even possessing functional RAE1 and RAE2. So far, the RAE3 was not identified, yet cloning of RAE3 elucidates the molecular mechanism for awn formation by RAE3 and helps to understand African rice domestication.
Since it is revealed that most donor parents of CSSLs carried functional RAE1 and RAE2 alleles by observation of CSSL and Sanger sequence, we performed a comparative analysis of the RAE1 and RAE2 sequence to assess the functional conservation of both genes in wild rice species. The RAE1 and RAE2 sequences analysis in 175 accessions of wild rice AA species obtained from the NCBI SRA database indicated that most of the accessions of wild rice species had functional RAE1 and RAE2, except for a few accessions of O. longistaminata and O. rufipogon. RAE2-hap4, which is observed in one accession of O. longistaminata, is distinct from the haplotypes of O. sativa; therefore, this mutation in RAE2-hap4 would have coincidently occurred in the accession of O. longistaminata. The dysfunctional haplotypes, RAE1-hap3 and RAE2-hap5, found in a few accessions of O. rufipogon, were also detected in O. sativa. N6205, which is one of the O. rufipogon accessions, carries RAE1-hap3, which is conserved in most japonica accessions, and W1669 and W1715, which are O. rufipogon accessions, carry RAE2-hap5, which is conserved in most indica accessions. We hypothesize two possibilities. One is that japonica and indica were derived from different accessions of O. rufipogon, and the other is that it might reflect the admixture of O. rufipogon and O. sativa [43]. To clarify these possibilities, the population analysis using a larger accession panel is necessary.
This research suggests that RAE1 and RAE2 are the major loci for awn development in wild relatives in the AA genome rice group. By contrast, within subspecies of O. sativa ssp. japonica and indica, the selection patterns of RAE1 and RAE2 differed; with >70% of O. sativa ssp. japonica lines possessing loss-of-function alleles of both genes and around 40% of O. sativa ssp. indica lines lost both genes’ function (Figure 5C). These percentages were slightly different from those reported previously [16,18], perhaps because this study used a smaller number of individuals for sequence comparison using SRA data, which requires sufficient read depth to identify the TE region compared to conventional PCR analysis [11]. Mutation points and haplotype occupancy differed between japonica and indica. RAE1-hap2 and RAE2-hap5 can be observed only in indica, while RAE1-hap3 and RAE2-hap3/RAE2-hap6 can be observed only in japonica. This suggests that loss of function in RAE1 and RAE2 in each subspecies have occurred by independent mutations that might have occurred in different O. rufipogon accessions. The haplotype analysis of RAE2/GLA by Zhang et al. [18] showed that the speciation of a RAE2/GLA natural variant might occur prior to the divergence of japonica and indica, which is consistent with the results of our study. In O. sativa, some lines lost only rae1, and some lost only rae2, suggesting that there were two steps of loss of function for RAE1 and RAE2. Further, each RAE1 and RAE2 can produce awns independently, and it is necessary to lose both genes’ function for awnless phenotype in Asian rice domestication. These findings indicate that mutations of RAE1 and RAE2 occurred after the speciation of O. sativa, and subsequently, different combinations of dysfunctional RAE1 and RAE2 alleles were selected in Asian rice domestication.
In this study, we compared a number of CSSL sets derived from AA genome species as donor parents and confirmed that each wild species possessed previously reported loci related to awn development; during this process, we also found new loci. This research re-realized us that multiple CSSLs are useful materials for genetic studies such as gene mapping and uncovering the selection histories of the target genes. In future studies, the combined application of CSSL analyses and publicly available NGS data will allow us to further elucidate the gene selection history of the AA genome rice group and identify new loci for targeted domestication traits.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Plant Materials

All CSSLs used in this study are listed in Table 1. Donor parents (provider of a particular chromosome segment of CSSL) and recurrent parents (genetic background of CSSL) are also listed in Table 1. All donor and recurrent parents belong to the AA genome group. CSSLs whose recurrent parent is O. sativa ssp. japonica cv. T65 include WK1962-IL (donor: WK1962 (O. rufipogon)), WK56-IL (donor: WK56 (O. nivara)), GLU-IL (donor: WK35 (O. glumaepatula)), MER-IL (donor: W1625 (O. meridionalis)), and MER-IL[MER] (donor: W1625 (O. meridionalis)). WK56 was originated from pure line isolation from IRGC105715. MER-IL[MER] and has the cytoplasm of W1625 (O. meridionalis), whereas MER-IL and other CSSLs have that of T65. Graphical genotypes of these 5 sets of CSSL and seeds were obtained from Oryzabase (https://shigen.nig.ac.jp/rice/oryzabase/, access on: 10 June 2019) and Kyushu University. CSSLs whose recurrent parent is O. sativa ssp. japonica cv. Koshihikari include KKSL (donor: Kasalath (O. sativa ssp. indica)), NSL (donor: W0054 (O. nivara)), RSL (donor: W0106 (O. rufipogon)), GLSL (donor: IRGC104038 (O. glaberrima)), BSL (donor: W0009 (O. barthii)), and RRESL (donor: IRGC105666 (O. glumaepatula)). These 6 CSSLs have the cytoplasm of Koshihikari. Graphical genotypes of these 6 sets of CSSL and seeds were obtained from Honda Research Institute and Nagoya University. We developed and firstly reported RRESL in this study. Other CSSLs are previously reported; WK1962-IL [32], WK56-IL [32], GLU-IL [33], MER-IL [34], MER-IL[MER] [34], KKSL [24], NSL [35], RSL [30], GLSL [29], and BSL [31].

4.2. Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) for Developing RRESL

F1 plant derived from a cross between Koshihikari and IRGC105666 was backcrossed with Koshihikari to produce 78 BC1F1 plants. BC1 plants were then backcrossed with Koshihikari three or four times, without marker-assisted selection (MAS), to produce BC4F1 and BC5F1 generation. Whole-genome genotyping was performed in the 140 BC4F1 and 120 BC5F1 using SNP markers distributed across the 12 rice chromosomes for MAS. Fifteen BC4F1 and 15 BC5F1 were selected and performed self-pollination or backcrossing with Koshihikari. Among 15 BC4F2, 22 BC5F2, and 5 BC6F2, the lines (11 BC4F2, 19 BC5F2, and 5 BC6F2) having one to two long, contiguous chromosome segments of IRGC105666 in Koshihikari genetic background were selected for constituting RRESL. Genomic DNA was extracted from the leaf blade of the samples using the ISOPLANT method and eluted in distilled water. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) using 149 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (Supplementary Table S1) using the AcycloPrime-FP Detection System and Fluorescence Polarization Analyzer (Perkin Elmer Life Science, Boston, MA, USA) following manufacture protocol was conducted. The SNP markers, which were developed using the Build 2 pseudomolecules of O. sativa ssp. japonica cv. Nipponbare, and evenly distributed across the 12 rice chromosomes at an average marker interval of 3.5 Mb. All backcrossed lines were cultivated at the experimental field of the Honda Research Institute in Kisarazu, Chiba, Japan, following a conservational agricultural method.

4.3. Determination of Substituted Segments in RRESL for Making Graphical Genotype

The lengths of substituted chromosome segments in RRESL were determined based on the SNP marker position (Supplementary Table S1). A chromosome segment flanked by two markers of donor parent type was considered homozygous of donor parent type; a chromosome segment flanked by two markers of recurrent parent type was considered homozygous of recurrent parent type; and a chromosome segment flanked by one marker of donor type and one marker of recurrent parent type was considered as recombination occurred between two markers.

4.4. Growth Conditions and Phenotypic Evaluation

Plant materials were grown in the field of Nagoya University at Togo, Aichi and in the field of Kyushu University at Kasuya, Fukuoka, Japan following the conventional agronomic calendar. We took matured seed pictures of some lines of donor parents, recurrent parents, and CSSLs with awn as representations. Ten seeds were used for awn length measurement and shown in Figure 2D.
For awn phenotypic evaluation of 11 sets of CSSL, we used 10 plants per CSSL to measure the awned spikelet ratio per panicle and awn length. The percentage of awned spikelets was determined from awned spikelets divided by all seeds on the main stem panicle, where the awned phenotype was defined as awns > 3 mm in length on mature grains. The average awn length was measured on the apical spikelet of each primary branch on the main stem panicle. We measured the awn phenotype over 2 to 3 years because the awn is a labile phenotype that depends on the environment. Phenotypic data for most CSSLs were collected for 3 years (2011, 2014, and 2016, or 2015, 2016, and 2017); however, data of WK1962-IL and WK56-IL were collected in 2014 and 2016, and those of BSL and RRESL were collected in 2016 and 2017. Data collected in years other than 2016 followed the standard evaluation system (SES), as defined by IRRI [37] (Supplementary Table S2). Quantitative data for 2016 are shown as representative data in Figure 3 and Supplementary Figure S2.

4.5. Chromosomal Localization of Responsible Loci for Awn Development

Chromosome regions harboring loci responsible for awn development were decided based on the phenotypic observation of awns more than twice within the 2-to-3-year examination period. Awn-related chromosome regions are highlighted by different colors depends on CSSL in Figure 4 based on the graphical genotype of each CSSL (provided in the original paper of each CSSL [24,29,30,31,32,33,34,35] and Figure 1B) and positional information of the substituted chromosome with markers were listed in Supplementary Table S2. For example, awn phenotype was observed two times in WK1962-IL16, which is carrying 0.17–18.5 Mb of chromosome 4 segment of WK1962 (O. rufipogon), and in WK1962-IL17, which is carrying 18.5–20.1 Mb of chromosome 4 segment of WK1962 (Supplementary Table S2). These results and information were converted to illustrations in Figure 4. We highlighted 0.17–20.1 Mb of chromosome 4 segment by yellow indicating WK1962-IL. Positional information of the genes and loci responsible for awn development were obtained from previous marker-based studies: An9 and An10 [36], An-1/RAE1 [11,13], LABA1/An-2 [14], An7 [38], RAE2/GAD1 [16], and RAE3 [13].

4.6. Identifying the Functional Mutations of RAE1 and RAE2 in the Donor and Recurrent Parents of CSSL

We extracted genomic DNA from the leaf blade of the donor and recurrent parents of CSSLs using the ISOPLANT method and amplified the TE region of RAE1 and the coding sequence region of RAE1 and RAE2. DNA amplification was performed using PCR with the following conditions: 95 °C for 5 min; 30 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 60 °C for 30 s, and 72 °C for 2 min; and a final cycle of 72 °C for 5 min. Reactions were carried out in 96-well PCR plates in 25-μL volumes containing 1 μmol/L of each primer, 200 μmol/L of dNTPs, 5 ng of DNA template, 2 mmol/L MgCl2, 2.5 μL 10× buffer, and 1 U of the Prime Star HS (Takara Bio, Tokyo, Japan) as a PCR reagent. PCR products were subjected to electrophoresis using 1% agar/TAE buffer and gel purified using Wizard SV Gel and the PCR Clean-Up System (Promega, Madison, USA) for the Sanger sequencing using a capillary sequencer (ABI 3130 Genetic Analyzer, Applied Biosystems, Foster city, USA. Translation and multiple sequence alignments were performed using the MUSCLE method in Geneious software version 9.0. The primer set is listed in Supplementary Table S3. The sequence alignments are in Supplementary Figure S3.

4.7. Evaluation of Functional RAE1 and RAE2 Allele in AA Genome Rice Species Using SRA Data

Whole-genome sequence data for 18 O. barthii, 19 O. glaberrima, 18 O. glumaepatula, 11 O. meridionalis, 16 O. longistamianta, three O. nivara, 57 O. rufipogon, 12 O. sativa ssp. indica, and 21 O. sativa ssp. japonica individuals (Supplementary Table S4) were obtained from the NCBI SRA database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sra, accessed on 5 April 2021) and DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ) (https://www.ddbj.nig.ac.jp/dra/index.html, accessed on 5 April 2021) and converted to the fastq format. Low-quality reads were removed using the fastp ver. 0.20.0 program [44]. Sequence reads for each individual were aligned to the O. sativa ssp. japonica genome IRGSP-1.0 (downloaded from Ensembl plants database on 26 September 2019) using the BWA ver. 0.7.12-r1039 aligner [45]. Redundant reads were excluded using the Samtools ver. 1.9 program [46], and genomic realignment was conducted using the ABRA2 ver. 2-2.22 software [47] for precise indel identification. The variant call was performed by mpileup with default settings. Mapping of short reads of O. meridionalis to the O. meridionalis genome v1.3 was performed following the method above.
To identify a reported TE insertion [11] in the promoter region of RAE1 as suggested in O. sativa ssp. japonica (chr4:16735371..16739771), we focused on the genomic boundaries of the inserted regions chr4:16735371 and chr4:16739771. Because the same sequence of the target TE is present in other locations in the genome of O. sativa japonica and other AA genome species, multi-mapped reads into the rice genome were excluded from the analysis. Detection of the target region covering the 200 bp before and after the target TE insertion boundary was performed using the bedtools ver. 2.29.1 program [48] (Supplementary Figure S4A). TE insertion was judged at 80% coverage based on the breadth of sequence alignment within the TE (>160/200 bp) and outside of the TE (>160/200 bp), as shown in Supplementary Figure S4B. No TE insertion was identified at less than 20% coverage within the TE (<40/200 bp) and more than 80% coverage outside of the TE (>160/200 bp), as shown in Supplementary Figure S4C.

4.8. Alignment of TE Inserted Region among AA Genome Species

Genome sequence data of AA genome species and O. punctata, which is belonged to BB genome species as an outgroup, were retrieved from the Ensembl plant database. Sequences around the TE inserted region upstream of RAE1 (chr4:16735371..16739771) for each individual were obtained and aligned using the MUSCLE method in Geneious software version 9.0. Since O. sativa ssp. japonica sequence with TE (4.4 kb) cannot be aligned with others, NNNNNNN sequence was inserted instead of TE.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/plants10040725/s1, Figure S1: Phylogenetic tree of rice species in the AA genome group, Figure S2: Awn phenotypes among CSSLs. Figure S3: Sequence alignments of RAE1 and RAE2 in donor and recurrent parents of CSSLs. Figure S4: Transposable element (TE) insertions in the promoter region of RAE1 detected using next-generation sequencing data, Figure S5: Sequence comparison around TE insertion in the promoter region of RAE1 among AA genome rice species, Figure S6: Sequence variations of RAE1/rae1 and RAE2/rae2 in Asian rice species, Table S1: Primers used for the single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping in this study, Table S2: Awn phenotype data for all chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSLs) during the 2–3-year study period, Table S3: Primers used for sequence analysis of RAE1 and RAE2 in donor and recurrent parents of each CSSL, Table S4: Sequence read archive (SRA) identification numbers of all accessions used for comparative analysis of RAE1 and RAE2.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, K.B.-U., Y.Y., and M.A.; investigation, K.B.-U. and Y.Y.; resources, Y.Y., H.Y., T.T. and A.Y.; software, T.M.; writing and original draft preparation, K.B.-U.; supervision, M.A.; funding acquisition, K.B.-U. and M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) fellowship (project no. 15J03740) and supported in part by the Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development Project (SATREPS) program (no. JPMJSA1706) of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), a Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)/JSPS KAKENHI grant (no. 20H05912), the JST-Mirai Program, Research Program on Development of Innovative Technology (01005A) and the Riken-Nagoya University Science and Technology Hub.

Acknowledgments

We thank the National BioResource Project (NBRP) and Honda Research Institute Japan Co., Ltd. for their support in providing the materials. We appreciate Kengo Masuda (Nagoya University), Ryo Murakami, and Mariko Yamamoto (both belonged to Kyushu University) for helping with awn phenotyping.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Flowchart of the development of RRESL. (A) Breeding scheme for developing RRESL carrying IRGC105666 (O. glumaepatula) chromosome segments in the Koshihikari (O. sativa ssp. japonica) genetic background. Numbers in round and square brackets indicate the numbers of lines produced in each backcross generation and candidate lines for RRESL selected by marker-assisted selection (MAS), respectively. Bold numbers in brackets were finally selected from the resulting chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSL). (B) Graphical representation of the genotypes of the 35 lines in RRESL. White and black bars indicate homozygous chromosomal segments derived from Koshihikari and IRGC105666, respectively. Gray bars represent heterozygous regions. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers used for MAS are indicated above the table with their physical positions (Mb) for each chromosome (see also Supplementary Table S1).
Figure 1. Flowchart of the development of RRESL. (A) Breeding scheme for developing RRESL carrying IRGC105666 (O. glumaepatula) chromosome segments in the Koshihikari (O. sativa ssp. japonica) genetic background. Numbers in round and square brackets indicate the numbers of lines produced in each backcross generation and candidate lines for RRESL selected by marker-assisted selection (MAS), respectively. Bold numbers in brackets were finally selected from the resulting chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSL). (B) Graphical representation of the genotypes of the 35 lines in RRESL. White and black bars indicate homozygous chromosomal segments derived from Koshihikari and IRGC105666, respectively. Gray bars represent heterozygous regions. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers used for MAS are indicated above the table with their physical positions (Mb) for each chromosome (see also Supplementary Table S1).
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Plants 10 00725 g002 550
Figure 2. Awn phenotypes of materials. (A,B) Seeds of selected CSSL parents among (A) wild rice species and (B) cultivated rice species. African cultivated rice: O. glaberrima, Asian cultivated rice: T65 (O. sativa, japonica), Koshihikari (O. sativa, japonica), Kasalth (O. sativa, indica (aus)). (C) Seeds of several CSSLs possessing awns. (D) Awn lengths for each line. Average awn length of ten seeds±SD. Scale bar = 1 cm. O.mer, O. meridionalis; O.glum, O. glumaepatula; O.glab, O. glaberrima; T65, Taichung 65; Koshi, Koshihikari.
Figure 2. Awn phenotypes of materials. (A,B) Seeds of selected CSSL parents among (A) wild rice species and (B) cultivated rice species. African cultivated rice: O. glaberrima, Asian cultivated rice: T65 (O. sativa, japonica), Koshihikari (O. sativa, japonica), Kasalth (O. sativa, indica (aus)). (C) Seeds of several CSSLs possessing awns. (D) Awn lengths for each line. Average awn length of ten seeds±SD. Scale bar = 1 cm. O.mer, O. meridionalis; O.glum, O. glumaepatula; O.glab, O. glaberrima; T65, Taichung 65; Koshi, Koshihikari.
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Plants 10 00725 g003 550
Figure 3. Comparison of awn traits among CSSLs. Awned spikelet ratio per panicle and awn length among CSSLs whose recurrent parent was T65: (A) WK1962-IL and (B) GLU-IL. (C–E) Awned spikelet ratio per panicle and awn length among CSSLs whose recurrent parent was Koshihikari: (C) KKSL, (D) GLSL, and (E) BSL. Awn phenotype data obtained in 2016 was presented. Awn phenotype data in other CSSLs are presented in Supplementary Figure S2. Black bars indicate awned spikelet ratio per panicle; white bars indicate awn length. Numbers above the chromosome boxes indicate line number constituting each CSSL. Awn length data are means ± SD.
Figure 3. Comparison of awn traits among CSSLs. Awned spikelet ratio per panicle and awn length among CSSLs whose recurrent parent was T65: (A) WK1962-IL and (B) GLU-IL. (C–E) Awned spikelet ratio per panicle and awn length among CSSLs whose recurrent parent was Koshihikari: (C) KKSL, (D) GLSL, and (E) BSL. Awn phenotype data obtained in 2016 was presented. Awn phenotype data in other CSSLs are presented in Supplementary Figure S2. Black bars indicate awned spikelet ratio per panicle; white bars indicate awn length. Numbers above the chromosome boxes indicate line number constituting each CSSL. Awn length data are means ± SD.
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Plants 10 00725 g004 550
Figure 4. The responsible loci for awn development in each donor parent. White boxes indicate 12 rice chromosomes and the small box between big white boxes indicate centromere. Colored bars indicate the substituted chromosome region of the donor parent from each CSSL carrying the loci responsible for awn development. Black arrowheads indicate the positions of the genes RAE1, LABA1, and RAE2. Dotted brackets indicate the loci of qAWL2, An7, An9, An10, and RAE3 previously identified through quantitative trait loci (QTL) or linkage mapping analysis.
Figure 4. The responsible loci for awn development in each donor parent. White boxes indicate 12 rice chromosomes and the small box between big white boxes indicate centromere. Colored bars indicate the substituted chromosome region of the donor parent from each CSSL carrying the loci responsible for awn development. Black arrowheads indicate the positions of the genes RAE1, LABA1, and RAE2. Dotted brackets indicate the loci of qAWL2, An7, An9, An10, and RAE3 previously identified through quantitative trait loci (QTL) or linkage mapping analysis.
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Figure 5. Frequency of the combination of RAE1 and RAE2 haplotypes. (A,B) Haplotypes in RAE1 (A) and RAE2 (B) categorized based on the comparison between O. rufipogon and O. sativa ssp. japonica/indica. (C) Combinations of the RAE1 and RAE2 haplotypes among the AA genome species were classified into four groups. The pie chart indicates the percentage of each group, where blue, red, green, and purple indicate groups I, II, III, and IV, respectively. Numbers below the pie charts are the numbers of accessions used for this analysis. Green and orange squares indicate cultivated rice species and their wild progenitors in Africa and Asia, respectively. O.bar, O. barthii; O.gla, O. glaberrima; O.lon, O. longistaminata; O.mer, O. meridionalis; O.glum, O. glumaepatula; O.ruf, O. rufipogon; O.niv, O. nivara; O.sat_jap, O. sativa ssp. japonica; O.sat_ind, O. sativa ssp. indica.
Figure 5. Frequency of the combination of RAE1 and RAE2 haplotypes. (A,B) Haplotypes in RAE1 (A) and RAE2 (B) categorized based on the comparison between O. rufipogon and O. sativa ssp. japonica/indica. (C) Combinations of the RAE1 and RAE2 haplotypes among the AA genome species were classified into four groups. The pie chart indicates the percentage of each group, where blue, red, green, and purple indicate groups I, II, III, and IV, respectively. Numbers below the pie charts are the numbers of accessions used for this analysis. Green and orange squares indicate cultivated rice species and their wild progenitors in Africa and Asia, respectively. O.bar, O. barthii; O.gla, O. glaberrima; O.lon, O. longistaminata; O.mer, O. meridionalis; O.glum, O. glumaepatula; O.ruf, O. rufipogon; O.niv, O. nivara; O.sat_jap, O. sativa ssp. japonica; O.sat_ind, O. sativa ssp. indica.
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Table
Table 1. The list of CSSLs used in this study.
Table 1. The list of CSSLs used in this study.
CSSL NameLine NumberDonor ParentRecurrent ParentReference
WK1962-IL44WK1962 (O. rufipogon)T65
(O. sativa japonica)		[32]
WK56-IL34WK56 (O. nivara)[32]
GLU-IL35WK35 (O. glumaepatula)[33]
MER-IL36W1625 (O. meridionalis)[34]
MER-IL [MER]42W1625 (O. meridionalis)[34]
KKSL39Kasalath (O. sativa)aKoshihikari
(O. sativa japonica)		[24]
NSL26W0054 (O. nivara)[35]
RSL33W0106 (O. rufipogon)[30]
GLSL34IRGC104038 (O. glaberrima) a[29]
BSL40W0009 (O. barthii)[31]
RRESL35IRGC105666 (O. glumaepatula)this study
a Two donor parents, Kasalath (O. sativa) and IRGC104038 (O. glaberrima), are Asian and African cultivated species, respectively. Other donor parents are wild relatives in AA genome group.
Table
Table 2. Sequence comparison of RAE1 and RAE2 in recurrent and donor parent.
Table 2. Sequence comparison of RAE1 and RAE2 in recurrent and donor parent.
Cultivated/WildLine NameRAE1
TE		RAE1
2nd_exon_G		RAE1
Function		RAE2
Cys no.		RAE2
Function		Awn
Phenotype
cultivatedKoshihikari (O. sativa japonica)+Grae14rae2 -
cultivatedT65 (O. sativa japonica)+Grae14rae2 -
cultivatedIRGC104038 (O. glaberrima)-GRAE16RAE2 -
cultivatedKasalath (O. sativa indica, aus)-GRAE17rae2 +
wildIRGC105715 (O. nivara)-GRAE16RAE2 +
wildW0054 (O. nivara)-GRAE16RAE2 +
wildW1962 (O. rufipogon)-GRAE16RAE2 +
wildW0106 (O. rufipogon)-GRAE17rae2 +
wildW1625 (O. meridionalis)-GRAE16RAE2 +
wildWK35 (O. glumaepatula)-GRAE16RAE2 +
wildIRGC105666 (O. glumaepatula)-GRAE16RAE2 +
wildW0009 (O. barthii)-GRAE16RAE2 +
In the RAE1_TE column, “+” indicates that it has 4.4 kb TE in the promoter region of RAE1, “-” indicates no TE. In the RAE1_2nd_exon_G column, “G” represented it is same as a reference allele of O. rufipogon at G780 position. There are no lines carrying deletion as suggested in indica variety for loss of function of An-1 (RAE1) [11]. In the awn phenotype column, “-” indicates awnless, and “+” indicates awned phenotype. Gray color indicates dysfunctional allele of RAE1 and RAE2 gene and awnless phenotype. The awnless phenotype of O. glaberrima is caused not by RAE1 and RAE2, but by loss-of-function in locus RAE3.
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Bessho-Uehara, K.; Yamagata, Y.; Takashi, T.; Makino, T.; Yasui, H.; Yoshimura, A.; Ashikari, M. Exploring the Loci Responsible for Awn Development in Rice through Comparative Analysis of All AA Genome Species. Plants 2021, 10, 725. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040725

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Bessho-Uehara K, Yamagata Y, Takashi T, Makino T, Yasui H, Yoshimura A, Ashikari M. Exploring the Loci Responsible for Awn Development in Rice through Comparative Analysis of All AA Genome Species. Plants. 2021; 10(4):725. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040725

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Bessho-Uehara, Kanako, Yoshiyuki Yamagata, Tomonori Takashi, Takashi Makino, Hideshi Yasui, Atsushi Yoshimura, and Motoyuki Ashikari. 2021. "Exploring the Loci Responsible for Awn Development in Rice through Comparative Analysis of All AA Genome Species" Plants 10, no. 4: 725. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040725

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