Evidence that Amphotericin B Mediates Reactivation of Latent Epstein-Barr Virus in Hodgkin's Lymphoma Allowing Cytotoxicity by Acyclovir

In the June 2005 issue of the Yonsei Medical Journal,1 Bang et al. reported a 36-year-old male with Hodgkins lymphoma (HL) mixed cellularity type, stage IVB, who showed signs of regression after a single day of COPP-AV (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, procarbazine, prednisone-doxorubicin, vinblastine). IgM for the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was negative, indicating that this HL was not associated with recent infectious mononucleosis. One day after COPP-AV, on hospital day 16, dyspnea and X-ray evidence of bilateral pneumonia and Candida antigenemia were noted. Amphotericin B and acyclovir were started along with several antibacterial antibiotics. Candida antigenemia was indicative of immunosuppression, hence treatment initiation with acyclovir to treat or prevent concomitant cytomegalovirus (a Herpes virus). Acyclovir was switched to its homologue ganciclovir. Five days after amphotericin B and acyclovir/ganciclovir, A/G, treatment initiation, on hospital day 21, and after multiple antibiotics, a repeat chest CT scan showed resolving pneumonitis and smaller mediastinal and supraclavicular lymph nodes that had been enlarged on admission. After 2 months of hypoxic episodes, intubation, bouts with diabetes insipitus, pancreatitis, and peripheral neuropathy, on hospital day 90, a repeat CT scan showed slight evidence of lymphadenopathy, most areas having resolved. Nine months later and without further treatment, there was no evidence of HL. This patient remains well now, 4 years later.

The sustained remission is not only astounding itself, but also the rapidity at which it began. This case therefore requires careful and detailed consideration. Bang at al. conjectured that remission was a consequence of the septic episode, as it well might have been. Cancer remission after sepsis has a long history, which was reviewed for the centenary of William B. Coley in 1994.2 In the late 1890's Coley saw remissions after iatrogenically induced erysipelas. He saw this only for sarcomas, but these included lymphomas. Bang et al. place their case in this category of cancer remission induced by sepsis-triggered, massive inflammatory mediator release and/or induction of immunological events leading to HL cytotoxicity.

An alternative explanation expounded herein, is that the HL cells were infected with EBV. Amphotericin B has profound effects on lymphocytes. Derangements wrought by amphotericin B could have reactivated a latent EBV infection that entailed transcription of EBV thymidine kinase that phosphorylates A/G, creating toxic nucleoside analogues that killed EBV-infected and nearby cells.

HL is an unusual cancer for several reasons:3

Herpes simplex, Herpes varicella zoster, cytomegalovirus, the Herpes virus causing Kaposi's sarcoma, and EBV are all Herpes viruses and share similar life cycle patterns and attributes common to Herpes viruses: 1) initial transient infection of, and active replication in, an epithelium followed by 2) epigenomic residence in a second, non-epithelium cell type (lymphocytes for EBV and neurons for both H. simplex and H. zoster, for example). Then, 3) low level epigenomic replication occurs in the secondary cell type at the time of host cell division, assuring that both daughter cells are infected; other than this, infectious EBV are not produced or only minimally so. This state is latent infection. 4) Infrequent reactivation occurs where large numbers of complete viruses are produced. There is then full expression of EBV-coded proteins. This is lytic infection.

Acyclovir, famciclovir, ganciclovir, penciclovir and valacyclovir are homologues sharing similar anti-Herpes attributes. Ganciclovir is reviewed in ref. 5 as representative of the group.5 Latent infected HRS cells do not express virally coded thymidine kinase, and therefore A/G has little cytotoxic effect on them until and unless active lytic infection can be triggered when large amounts of A/G are phosphorylated into cytotoxic nucleoside analogues.

Inducing lytic EBV reactivation in cancer cells that bear latent EBV infection in order to allow A/G to kill them is an old idea:6

Amphotericin B, used in humans for over fifty years, is still one of the most potent anti-fungal agents available. By preferential binding to ergosterol compared to cholesterol, amphotericin B preferentially kills fungi and single cell parasites like Leishmania spp. Amphotericin B disrupts lymphocytes' lipid-rich rafts and functions empirically as a polyclonal B cell activator, triggering immunoglobulin synthesis and maturation-stimuli known to trigger EBV reactivation. When used clinically to treat fungal infection, amphotericin B can cause massive inflammatory mediator release, in part by stimulating Toll-like receptor-2,12, 13 resulting in the activation of B lymphocytes (including I conjecture of the HRS cell itself).

Two related observations are of note here: 1) An adult T cell leukemia remitted after pulmonary and urinary tract infection.14 Again, amphotericin B was used over a period of many months just prior to and during the remission. This adult T cell leukemia relapsed fatally as a lymphoma when amphotericin B was stopped. 2) Pseudorabies virus is a swine Herpes virus related to H. simplex (and quite unrelated to rabies virus). Augmentation of antiviral effects of acyclovir by amphotericin B was previously noted 22 years ago15 in an in vitro system with pseudorabies, further linking amphotericin B to activation of Herpes thymidine kinase.

In conclusion, in Bang et al.'s patient, amphotericin B may have reactivated latent EBV in HRS cells, allowing A/G to kill them. Perhaps nearby nonmalignant EBV-positive lymphocytes had their latent EBV activated by amphotericin B and they generated enough cytotoxic A/G metabolites to kill the HRS clone. Components of COPP-AV have been shown to reactivate EBV lytic infection and may have done so, or may have contributed to reactivation intensity. Given the safety of amphotericin B and A/G compared to current cytotoxic treatments like COPP-AV or irradiation, A/G treatment of HL should be further explored and the current hypothesis tested.