바로가기메뉴

본문 바로가기 주메뉴 바로가기

logo

생태체계이론에 기반한 재난피해자들의 외상 후 스트레스 장애 관련변인 메타분석

A Meta Analysis Study of Predictors of Disaster Victims’post-traumatic Stress Response Based on Ecological Model

한국심리학회지: 일반 / Korean Journal of Psychology: General, (P)1229-067X; (E)2734-1127
2016, v.35 no.4, pp.525-562
https://doi.org/10.22257/kjp.2016.12.35.4.525
이나빈 (이화여자대학교)
안현의 (이화여자대학교)
  • 다운로드 수
  • 조회수

초록

본 연구는 재난피해자들의 외상 후 스트레스 장애(이하 PTSD)에 영향을 미치는 변인들을 생태모델을 사용하여 체계적으로 분류하고 그 효과크기를 종합적으로 분석하기 위해 2005년부터 2015년까지 국내외에서 발간된 학술지논문 87편에 대해 메타분석을 실시하였다(N=961). 변인군 별로 PTSD에 대한 효과크기를 비교한 결과, 자연재해의 경우 통계적으로 유의한 효과크기를 보인 변인군 중 상위 세 번째는 ‘가족 내 특성, 가족 및 사회적 관계 관련 스트레스 원, 이차 스트레스 원’ 순으로 나타났다. 변인 별 분석 결과, 자연재해의 경우, ‘가족 내 특성’ 중 ‘기능적 측면’이 큰 효과크기를 보였다. 인재에 있어서 변인군 별로 효과크기를 비교한 결과, ‘노출, 가족 및 사회적 관계 관련 스트레스 원, 이차 스트레스 원’ 순으로 나타났으며, 변인 별 분석 결과, ‘노출’ 중 ‘심리적 거리’, ‘개인 심리특성’ 중 ‘정서반응’이 큰 효과크기를 보였다. 마지막으로 자연재해와 인재에 있어서 각 변인 별로 재난 경과기간과 국가 경제력을 조절변인으로 한 메타회귀분석을 실시하였으며, 조절효과가 유의했던 관련변인이 무엇인지 확인할 수 있었다. 본 연구결과는 재난 심리지원 과정에서 우선적으로 주목해야 할 지표들을 밝힘으로서 임상적으로는 재난피해자들의 심리적 회복을 돕는 개입을 계획하도록 돕고, 정책적으로는 재난 후 정신건강 문제에 보다 취약한 이들이 가진 요소들을 고려하여 국가 차원에서 재난심리지원 방안을 마련하기 위한 근거자료로 제공될 수 있을 것이다.

keywords
재난피해자, 생태체계이론, PTSD, 메타분석, disaster victims, ecological model, post-traumatic stress response, meta analysis

Abstract

The objective of this study is to classify relevant factors of disaster victims’ posttraumatic stress response systematically using an ecological model, and to analyze their effect sizes comprehensively. To this end, this study is a meta-analysis of 87 studies published in Korea and other countries between 2005 and 2015 on a topic of disaster victims’ posttraumatic stress response. First of all, factors associated with posttraumatic stress responses were derived and classified into sublevels of an ecological model: individualsystem, microsystem, and exosystem. Then, in order to investigate what predictors are more strongly related with the posttraumatic stress responses. The results are summarized as follows. In result, according to results on effect sizes by factor separately for different types of disaster, posttraumatic stress responses for natural disasters were best related with the ‘functions within family’and posttraumatic stress responses for man-made disaster were better related with ‘psychological distance’ of ‘exposure level’and ‘emotional response’ of ‘individual psychological characteristics’. At last, according to results on how effect sizes of factor groups vary according to time lapse since disaster and national economic power in each disaster type, we could find whether moderating effect was significant in the relationship between factor and posttraumatic stress responses or not. By determining indicators to focus on in disaster psychological support process, at a clinical level, this study assisted with planning of interventions for disaster victims’ psychological recovery. At a policy level, this study provided basic materials for national-level disaster psychological support measures by considering factors retained by those who are vulnerable to mental health problems after disaster. This study is expected to contribute to establishing effective support measures and policies for assisting with recovery of disaster victims.

keywords
재난피해자, 생태체계이론, PTSD, 메타분석, disaster victims, ecological model, post-traumatic stress response, meta analysis

참고문헌

1.

강현. (2015). 메타분석에서 통계학적 고려사항들. Hanyang Med Rev, 35, 23-32.

2.

김민경. (2011). 연천 GP 총기난사 사건의 생존자 연구: 정신적 후유실태 및 스트레스대처와 통제소재. 한국심리학회지: 임상,30, 571-585.

3.

김소희, 박미현. (2012). 재난피해가족의 레질리언스 강화를 위한 사회복지실천 개입전략 탐색. 사회과학연구, 38, 101-122.

4.

안류연, & 조용래. (2014). 연평도 포격 피해주민들의 외상 후 스트레스 장애 증상 심각도와 심리사회적 관련변인들의 관계.한국심리학회지: 임상, 33, 875-893.

5.

이준영. (2008). 메타분석. 대한내분비학회지, 23, 361-378.

6.

조용래, & 양상식. (2013). 자연재난 생존자들의 장기적인 심리적 증상들에 대한관련변인으로서 외상 당시의 해리, 외상 후 부정적 신념 및 사회적 지지 부족. 한국심리학회지: 임상, 32, 955-979.

7.

최남희, 변주훈, 한동일, & 임숙빈. (2007). 자연재난 집중호우 피해자의 심리적 충격과우울. 정신간호학회지, 16, 139-149.

8.

Altindag, A., Ozen, S., & Sir, A. (2005). One-year follow-up study of posttraumatic stress disorder among earthquake survivors in Turkey. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 46, 328-333.

9.

Adams, R. E., & Boscarino, J. A. (2006). Predictors of PTSD and delayed PTSD after disaster: The impact of exposure and psychosocial resources. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 485.

10.

Alderman, K., Turner, L. R., & Tong, S. (2013). Assessment of the health impacts of the 2011 summer floods in Brisbane. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 7, 380-386.

11.

Arnberg, F. K., Johannesson, K. B., & Michel, P. O. (2013). Prevalence and duration of PTSD in survivors 6 years after a natural disaster. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27, 347-352.

12.

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5. American Psychiatric Association.

13.

Anwar, J., Mpofu, E., Matthews, L. R., & Brock, K. E. (2013). Risk factors of posttraumatic stress disorder after an earthquake disaster. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201, 1045-1052.

14.

Bei, B., Bryant, C., Gilson, K. M., Koh, J., Gibson, P., Komiti, A., & Judd, F. (2013). A prospective study of the impact of floods on the mental and physical health of older adults. Aging and Mental Health, 17, 992-1002.

15.

Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., & Solomon, Z. (2003). Exposure to terrorism, stress–related mental health symptoms, and coping behaviors among a nationally representative sample in Israel. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 612–620.

16.

Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., Melamed, Y., & Solomon, Z. (2006). Mental health and resiliency following 44 months of terrorism: a survey of an Israeli national representative sample. BMC Medicine, 4, 21.

17.

Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20.

18.

Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2006). Psychological resilience after disaster - New York City in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attack. Psychological Science, 17, 181-186.

19.

Bonanno, G. A., Brewin, C. R., Kaniasty, K., & La Greca, A. M. (2010). Weighing the costs of disaster consequences, risks, and resilience in individuals, families, and communities. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 11, 1-49.

20.

Borenstein, M. (2005). Software for publication bias. Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, Assessment and Adjustments, 193-220.

21.

Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to Meta-analysis. West Sussex, UK: Wiley.

22.

Boscarino, J. A., & Adams, R. E. (2009). PTSD onset and course following the World Trade Center disaster: Findings and implications for future research. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44, 887-898.

23.

Bosmans, M. W., Benight, C. C., van der Knaap, L. M., Winkel, F. W., & van der Velden, P. G. (2013). The associations between coping self-efficacy and posttraumatic stress symptoms 10 years postdisaster: differences between men and women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 184-191.

24.

Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 129, 52-73.

25.

Bromet, E. J., Havenaar, J. M., Gluzman, S. F., Tintle, N. L.(2005) Psychological aftermath of the Lviv air show disaster: a prospective controlled study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112, 194-200.

26.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and prospects. American Psychologist, 34, 844-850.

27.

Bryant, R. A., Waters, E., Gibbs, L., Gallagher, H. C., Pattison, P., Lusher, D., Macdougall, C., Harms, L., Block, K., Snowdon, E., Sinnott, V., Ireton, G., Richardson, J., & Forbes, D. (2014). Psychological outcomes following the Victorian Black Saturday bushfires. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 634-643

28.

Cai, W., Ding, C., Tang, Y. L., Wu, S., & Yang, D. (2014). Effects of social supports on posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Moderating role of perceived safety. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6, 724-730.

29.

Cairo, J. B., Dutta, S., Nawaz, H., Hashmi, S., Kasl, S., & Bellido, E. (2010). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder among adult earthquake survivors in Peru. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 4, 39-46.

30.

Carrion, V. G., & Pina, A. A. (2007). The psychosocial impact of Hurricane Katrina: Contextual differences in psychological symptoms, social support, and discrimination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2295– 2306

31.

Campbell, R., Dworkin, E., & Cabral, G. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women's mental health. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10, 225-246.

32.

Cenat, J. M., & Derivois, D. (2014). Assessment of prevalence and determinants of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptoms in adults survivors of earthquake in Haiti after 30 months. Journal of Affective Disorders, 159, 11-117.

33.

Chang, C. M., Connor, K. M., Lai, T. J., Lee, L. C., & Davidson, J. R. (2005). Predictors of posttraumatic outcomes following the 1999 Taiwan earthquake. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 40-46.

34.

Chan, C. S. & Rhodes, J. E. (2014). Measuring Exposure in Hurricane Katrina: A Meta-Analysis and an Integrative Data Analysis. Plos One, 9, 1-15.

35.

Cherry, K. E., Sampson, L., Nezat, P. F., Cacamo, A., Marks, L. D., & Galea, S. (2015). Long-term psychological outcomes in older adults after disaster: relationships to religiosity and social support. Aging and Mental Health, 19, 430-443.

36.

Chen, C. H., Tan, H. K. L., Liao, L. R., Chen, H. H., Chan, C. C., Chen, C. Y., Wang, T.N., & Lu, M. L. (2007). Long-term psychological outcome of 1999 Taiwan earthquake survivors: a survey of a high-risk sample with property damage. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48, 269-275.

37.

Cofini, V., Carbonelli, A., Cecilia, M. R., Binkin, N., & di Orio, F. (2015). Post traumatic stress disorder and coping in a sample of adult survivors of the Italian earthquake. Psychiatry Research, 229, 353-358.

38.

Coleman, J. S., (1988).‘Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital’. American Journal of Sociology, 94(supplement), S95–S120.

39.

Cutter, S. L., & Finch, C. (2008). Temporal and spatial changes in social vulnerability to natural hazards. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 2301–2306.

40.

DiGrande, L., Neria, Y., Brackbill, R. M., Pulliam, P., & Galea, S. (2011). Long-term posttraumatic stress symptoms among 3,271 civilian survivors of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. American Journal of Epidemiology, 173, 271-281.

41.

Duffy, M., Bolton, D., Gillespie, K., Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2013). A community study of the psychological effects of the Omagh Car Bomb on Adults. PLoS One, 8, e76618.

42.

Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.

43.

Flores, E. C., Carnero, A. M., & Bayer, A. M. (2014). Social capital and chronic post-traumatic stress disorder among survivors of the 2007 earthquake in Pisco, Peru. Social Science and Medicine, 101, 9-17.

44.

Feder, A., Ahmad, S., Lee, E. J., Morgan, J. E., Singh, R., Smith, B. W., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2013). Coping and PTSD symptoms in Pakistani earthquake survivors: Purpose in life, religious coping and social support. Journal of Affective Disorders, 147, 156-163.

45.

Feng, S., Tan, H., Benjamin, A., Wen, S., Liu, A., Zhou, J., Li, S., Yang, T., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Li, G. (2007). Social Support and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Flood Victims in Hunan, China. Annals of Epidemiology, 17, 827-833.

46.

Flory, K., Hankin, B. L., Kloos, B., Cheely, C., & Turecki, G. (2009). Alcohol and cigarette use and misuse among hurricane Katrina survivors: Psychosocial risk and protective factors. Substance Use and Misuse, 44, 1711-1724.

47.

Freh, F. M., Dallos, R., & Chung, M. C. (2013). An exploration of PTSD and coping strategies: Response to the experience of being in a bomb attack in Iraq. Traumatology, 19, 87.

48.

Furr, J. M., Comer, J. S., Edmunds, J. M., Kendall, P. C. (2010). Disasters and youth: a meta-analytic examination of posttraumatic stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 765-780.

49.

Galea, S., Tracy, M., Norris, F., & Coffey, S. F. (2008). Financial and social circumstances and the incidence and course of PTSD in Mississippi during the first two years after Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 357-368.

50.

Gigantesco, A., Mirante, N., Granchelli, C., Diodati, G., Cofini, V., Mancini, C., Carbonelli, A., Tarolla, E., Minardi, V., Salmaso, S., & D'Argenio, P. (2013). Psychopathological chronic sequelae of the 2009 earthquake in L'Aquila, Italy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 148, 265-271.

51.

Ginsberg, J. P., Holbrook, J. R., Chanda, D., Bao, H., & Svendsen, E. R. (2012). Posttraumatic stress and tendency to panic in the aftermath of the chlorine gas disaster in Graniteville, South Carolina. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1441-1448.

52.

Goto, T., Wilson, J. P., Kahana, B., & Slane, S. (2006)The Miyake Island volcano disaster in Japan: Loss, uncertainty, and relocation as predictors of PTSD and depression. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 2001-2026.

53.

Hashmi, S., Petraro, P., Rizzo, T., Nawaz, H., Choudhary, R., Tessier-Sherman, B., Kasl, S., & Nawaz, H. (2011). Symptoms of anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress among survivors of the 2005 pakistani earthquake. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 5, 293-299.

54.

Halpern, J., Tramontin, M. (2007). Disaster mental health: Theory and practice. Belmont, CA: Thompson Brooks/Cole.

55.

Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K.G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorder: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152-1168.

56.

Hirth, J. M., Leyser-Whalen, O., & Berenson, A. B. (2013). Effects of a major US Hurricane on mental health disorder symptoms among adolescent and young adult females. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52, 765-772.

57.

Hoffman, M. A., & Kruczek, T. (2011). A Bioecological Model of Mass Trauma : Individual, Community, and Societal Effects, Counseling Psychologist, 39, 1087- 1127.

58.

Hollander, J., & Haber, L. (1992). Ecological transition: Using Bronfenbrenner's model to study sexual identity change. Health Care for Women International, 13, 121-129.

59.

Jia, Z., Tian, W., Liu, W., Cao, Y., Yan, J., & Shun, Z. (2010). Are the elderly more vulnerable to psychological impact of natural disaster? A population-based survey of adult survivors of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. BMC Public Health, 10, 172.

60.

Katz, C. L., Pellegrino, L., Pandya, A., Ng, A., & DeLisi, L. E. (2002). Research on psychiatric outcomes and interventions subsequent to disasters: a review of the literature. Psychiatry Research, 110, 201-217.

61.

Kumar, M. S., Murhekar, M. V., Hutin, Y., Subramanian, T., Ramachandran, V., & Gupte, M. D. (2007). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in a coastal fishing village in Tamil Nadu, India, after the December 2004 tsunami. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 99-101.

62.

Kyutoku, Y., Tada, R., Umeyama, T., Harada, K., Kikuchi, S., Watanabe, E., ... & Dan, I. (2012). Cognitive and psychological reactions of the general population three months after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami. PloS One, 7, e31014.

63.

Lei, M., Li, C., Xiao, X., Qiu, J., Dai, Y., & Zhang, Q. (2012). Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Resilience Scale in Wenchuan earthquake survivors. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 616-622.

64.

Leiva-Bianchi, M., Baher, G., & Poblete, C. (2012). The Effects of Stress Coping Strategies in Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms Among Earthquake Survivors. An Explanatory Model of Post-Traumatic Stress. Terapia Psicológica, 30, 51-59.

65.

Li, Z., Sang, Z., Wang, L., Shi, Z. (2012). The Mini-IPIP scale: Psychometric features and relations with PTSD symptoms of Chinese earthquake survivors. Psychological Reports, 111, 641-651.

66.

Littleton, H., Grills-Taquechel, A., & Axsom, D. (2009). Resource loss as a predictor of posttrauma symptoms among college women following the mass shooting at Virginia Tech. Violence and Victims, 24, 669-686.

67.

Liu, X., Ma, X., Hu, X., Qiu, C., Wang, Y., Wang, Q., & Li, T. (2012). A risk score for predicting post-traumatic stress disorder in adults in a Chinese earthquake area. Journal of International Medical Research, 40, 2191-2198.

68.

Lock, S., & Rubin, G. J. (2012). Secondary stressors and extreme events and disaster: a systematic review of primary research from 2010-2011. PLoS currents, 4.

69.

Lommen, M. J., Sanders, A. J., Buck, N., & Arntz, A. (2009). Psychosocial predictors of chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Sri Lankan tsunami survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 60-65.

70.

Lowe, S. R., Tracy, M., Cerdá, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2013). Immediate and Longer‐ Term Stressors and the Mental Health of Hurricane Ike Survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 753-761.

71.

Maguen, S., Neria, Y., Conoscenti, L. M., & Litz, B. T. (2009). Depression and prolonged grief in the wake of disasters. Mental Health and Disasters, 116-130.

72.

Miguel‐Tobal, J. J., Cano‐Vindel, A., Gonzalez ‐Ordi, H., Iruarrizaga, I., Rudenstine, S., Vlahov, D., & Galea, S. (2006). PTSD and depression after the Madrid March 11 train bombings. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 69-80.

73.

Myers, D. G., & Wee, D. F. (2005). Disaster mental health services: A primer for practitioners (No. 27). Psychology Press.

74.

Neria, Y., Nandi, A., & Galea, S.. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder following disasters: a systematic review. Psychological Medicine. 38, 467–80.

75.

NIMH (National Institute of Mental Health). (2002). Mental health and mass violence: evidence-based early psychological interventions for victims/survivors of mass violence. A workshop to reach consensus on best practices. (NIH Publication. No. 02-5138). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

76.

Norris, F., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 Disaster Victims Speak: Part I. An Empirical Review of the Empirical Literature, 1981–2001, Psychiatry, 65, 207–239.

77.

Norris, F. H. Sherrieb, K., & Galea, S. (2010). Prevalence and Consequences of Disaster-Related Illness and Injury From Hurricane Ike. Rehabilitation Psychology, 55, 221-230.

78.

Otto, K., Boos, A., Dalbert, C., Schöps, D., & Hoyer, J. (2006). Posttraumatic symptoms, depression, and anxiety of flood victims: The impact of the belief in a just world. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1075-1084.

79.

Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of post traumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52-73.

80.

Parslow, R. A., Jorm, A. F., & Christensen, H. (2006). Associations of pre-trauma attributes and trauma exposure with screening positive for PTSD: Analysis of a community-based study of 2085 young adults. Psychological Medicine, 36, 387-395.

81.

Peek-Asa, C., Ramirez, M., Young, T., & Cao, Y. (2012). Flood-related work disruption and poor health outcomes among university students. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 27, 503-508.

82.

Pelanda, C. (1981). Disaster and Socio-Systemic Vulnerability. In Third International Conference on the Social and Economic Aspects of Earthquakes and Planning to Mitigate their Impacts. Bled, Yugoslavia.

83.

Polusny, M. A., Ries, B. J., Meis, L. A., DeGarmo, D., McCormick-Deaton, C. M., Thuras, P., & Erbes, C. R. (2011). Effects of Parents' Experiential Avoidance and PTSD on Adolescent Disaster-Related Posttraumatic Stress Symptomatology. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 220-229.

84.

Polusny, M. A., Ries, B. J., Schultz, J. R., Calhoun, P., Clemensen, L., & Johnsen, I. R. (2008). PTSD symptom clusters associated with physical health and health care utilization in rural primary care patients exposed to natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 75-82.

85.

Poulin, M. J., Silver, R. C., Gil-Rivas, V., Holman, E. A., & McIntosh, D. N. (2009). Finding Social Benefits After a Collective Trauma: Perceiving Societal Changes and Well-Being Following 9/11. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 81-90.

86.

Priebe, S., Grappasonni, I., Mari, M., Dewey, M., Petrelli, F., & Costa, A. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder six months after an earthquake. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44, 393-397.

87.

Pyari, T. T., Kutty, R. V., & Sarma, P. S. (2012). Risk factors of post-traumatic stress disorder in tsunami survivors of Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 54, 48.

88.

Raja, M., Onofri, A., Azzoni, A., Borzellino, B., & Melchiorre, N. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder among people exposed to the Ventotene street disaster in Rome. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 4, 5.

89.

Rajkumar, A. P., Mohan, T. S., & Tharyan, P. (2013). Lessons from the 2004 Asian tsunami: epidemiological and nosological debates in the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder in non-Western post-disaster communities. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 59, 123-129.

90.

Rivière, S., Schwoebel, V., Lapierre-Duval, K., Guinard, A., Gardette, V., & Lang, T. (2008). Predictors of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder after the AZF chemical factory explosion on 21 September 2001, in Toulouse, France. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62, 455-460.

91.

Rubonis, A. V., & Bickman, L. (1991). Psychological impairment in the wake of disaster: The disaster–psychopathology relationship. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 384.

92.

Rhodes, A. M., & Tran, T. V. (2012). Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress and Growth Among Black and White Survivors of Hurricane Katrina: Does Perceived Quality of the Governmental Response Matter?. Race and Social Problems, 4, 144-157.

93.

Rynearson, E. K. (1984). Bereavement after homicide: A descriptive study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1452-1454.

94.

Sattler, D. N., Assanangkornchai, S., Moller, A. M., Kesavatana-Dohrs, W., & Graham, J. M. (2014). Indian Ocean tsunami: Relationships among posttraumatic stress, posttraumatic growth, resource loss, and coping at 3 and 15 months. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 15, 219-239.

95.

Saul, J. L. J. (2004). Facilitating family and community resilience in response to major disaster. Living beyond loss: Death in the family, 285-309.

96.

Sallis, J. F., Owen, N., & Fisher, E. B. (2008). Ecological models of health behavior. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 465-486.

97.

Schumacher, J. A., Coffey, S. F., Norris, F. H., Tracy, M., Clements, K., & Galea, S. (2010). Intimate partner violence and Hurricane Katrina: Predictors and associated mental health outcomes. Violence and Victims, 25, 588-603.

98.

Siqveland, J (2012). Posttraumatic growth in parents after a natural disaster. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 17, 536-544.

99.

Silove, D., Steel, Z., & Psychol, M. (2006). Understanding community psychosocial needs after disasters: Implications for mental health services. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, 52, 121.

100.

Shultz, J. M., Espinel, Z., Galea, S., & Reissman, D. B. (2007). Disaster ecology: implications for disaster psychiatry. In R. J. Ursano, C. S. Fullerton, L. Weisaeth, & B. Raphael (eds.) Textbook of Disaster Psychiatry. Cambridge university Press

101.

Somer, E., Ruvio, A., Soref, E., & Sever, I. (2005). Terrorism, distress and coping: High versus low impact regions and direct versus indirect civilian exposure. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 18, 165-182.

102.

Solomon, S., Bravo, M., Rubio-Stripec, M., & Canino, G. (1993). Effect of family role on response to disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 255-269.

103.

Strelau, J., & Zawadzki, B. (2005). Trauma and temperament as predictors of intensity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms after disaster. European Psychologist, 10, 124-135.

104.

Smid, G. E., van der Velden, P. G., Gersons, B. P., & Kleber, R. J. (2012). Late-onset posttraumatic stress disorder following a disaster: A longitudinal study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 312.

105.

Sumer, N., Karanci, A. N., Berument, S. K., & Gunes, H. (2005). Personal resources, coping self-efficacy, and quake exposure as predictors of psychological distress following the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 331-342.

106.

Taft, C. T., Monson, C. M., Schumm, J. A., Watkins, L. E., Panuzio, J., & Resick, P. A. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, relationship adjustment, and relationship aggression in a sample of female flood victims. Journal of Family Violence, 24, 389-396.

107.

Tang, C. S. K. (2006). Positive and negative postdisaster psychological adjustment among adult survivors of the Southeast Asian earthquake–tsunami. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61, 699-705.

108.

Tang, C. S. K. (2007). Trajectory of traumatic stress symptoms in the aftermath of extreme natural disaster: A study of adult Thai survivors of the 2004 Southeast Asian earthquake and tsunami. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 54-59.

109.

Thavichachart, N., Tangwongchai, S., Worakul, P., Kanchanatawan, B., Suppapitiporn, S., Pattalung, A. S., Roomruangwong, C., & Chareonsook, O. (2009). Posttraumatic mental health establishment of the Tsunami survivors in Thailand. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, 5, 11.

110.

Thoresen, S., Jensen, T. K., & Dyb, G. (2014). Media participation and mental health in terrorist attack survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 639-646.

111.

Tracy, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2011). Differences in the determinants of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after a mass traumatic event. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 666-675.

112.

Ursano, R. J., McCaughey, B. G., & Fullerton, C. S. (1995). Individual and community response to trauma and disaster: the structure of human chaos. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

113.

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR). (2004). Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives. UN/ISDR, Geneva.

114.

Van Der Velden, P. G., Kleber, R. J., Christiaanse, B., Gersons, B. P. R., Marcelissen, F. G. H., Drogendijk, A. N., Grievink, L., Olff, M., & Meewisse, M. L. (2006). The independent predictive value of peritraumatic dissociation for postdisaster intrusions, avoidance reactions, and PTSD symptom severity: A 4-year prospective study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 493-506.

115.

Van Griensven, F., Chakkraband, M. L. S., Thienkrua, W., Pengjuntr, W., Lopes Cardozo, B., Tantipiwatanaskul, P., Mock, P. A., Ekassawin, S., Varangrat, A., Gotway, C., Sabin, M., & Tappero, J. W. (2006). Mental health problems among adults in tsunami-affected areas in southern Thailand. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296, 537-548.

116.

Vera-Villarroel, P., Zych, I., Celis-Atnaes, K., Córdova-Rubio, N., & Buela-Casal, G. (2011). Chilean validation of the posttraumatic stress disorder Checklist-Civilian version(PCL-C) after the earthquake on February 27, 2010. Psychological Reports, 109, 47-58.

117.

Vicary, A. M., & Fraley, R. C. (2010). Student Reactions to the Shootings at Virginia Tech and Northern Illinois University: Does Sharing Grief and Support Over the Internet Affect Recovery? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 1555-1563.

118.

Wang, B., Ni, C., & Chen, J. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder 1 month after 2008 earthquake in China: Wenchuan earthquake survey. Psychiatry Research, 187, 392-396.

119.

Walsh, F. (2003). Family resilience: A framework for clinical practice. Family Process, 42, 1-18.

120.

Walsh, F. (2007). Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community resilience. Family Process, 46, 207-227.

121.

Walsh, F. (1996). The concept of family resilience: Crisis and challenge. Family Process, 35, 261-281.

122.

Weems, C. F., Watts, S. E., Marsee, M. A., Taylor, L. K., Costa, N. M., Cannon, M. F., Carrion, V. G., & Pina, A. A. (2007). The psychosocial impact of Hurricane Katrina: Contextual differences in psychological symptoms, social support, and discrimination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2295-2306.

123.

Weidmann, A., Fehm, L., & Fydrich, T. (2008). Covering the tsunami disaster: subsequent post"]traumatic and depressive symptoms and associated social factors. Stress and Health, 24, 129-135.

124.

Wickrama, K. A. S., & Kaspar, V. (2007). Family context of mental health risk in Tsunami-exposed adolescents: Findings from a pilot study in Sri Lanka. Social Science and Medicine, 64, 713-723.

125.

Wickrama, K. A. S., & Wickrama, K. T. (2008). Family context of mental health risk in tsunami affected mothers: findings from a pilot study in Sri Lanka. Social Science and Medicine, 66, 994-1007.

126.

Wright, K. M., Ursano, R. J., Bartone, P. T., & Ingraham, L. H. (1990). The shared experience of catastrophe: an expanded classification of the disaster community. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 35.

127.

Xu, J., & Song, X. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder among survivors of the Wenchuan earthquake 1 year after: prevalence and risk factors. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 431-437.

128.

Zhang Z, Wang W, Shi Z, Wang L, Zhang J (2012) Mental Health Problems among the Survivors in the Hard-Hit Areas of the Yushu Earthquake. PLoS One, 7, e46449.

129.

Zhang, G., North, C. S., Narayanan, P., Kim, Y. S., Thielman, S., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2013). The course of postdisaster psychiatric disorders in directly exposed civilians after the US Embassy bombing in Nairobi, Kenya: A follow-up study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 195-203.

130.

Zhao, C., Wu, Z., & Xu, J. (2013). The association between post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and the quality of life among Wenchuan earthquake survivors: the role of social support as a moderator. Quality of Life Research, 22, 733-743.

131.

Zhou, X., Kang, L., Sun, X., Song, H., Mao, W., Huang, X., Zhang, Y., & Li, J. (2013). Risk factors of mental illness among adult survivors after the Wenchuan earthquake. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48, 907-915.

한국심리학회지: 일반