San’yas Indigenous Cultural Safety Training as an Educational Intervention: Promoting Anti-Racism and Equity in Health Systems, Policies, and Practices
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2021.12.3.8204Keywords:
Indigenous people, cultural safety, racism, inequities, health care, health equity, discriminationAbstract
The San’yas Indigenous Cultural Safety Training Program is an Indigenous-led, policy-driven, and systems-level educational intervention to foster health equity and mitigate the effects of systemic racism experienced by Indigenous people in health and other sectors. Currently, San’yas is being scaled-up across Canada. This article focuses on the following: (a) the pedagogical underpinnings of San’yas grounded in transformational learning principles and Indigenous knowledges; (b) the scope, reach, and scale-up of San’yas as an explicit anti-racism educational intervention; (c) its unique program delivery approaches; and (d) program evaluation trends. We discuss the insights gained from implementing San’yas over the past decade, which will be relevant for leaders and policy-makers concerned with implementing anti-racism educational interventions as part of broader system transformation.
References
Ahmad, W. I.-U. (Ed.) (1993). Making Black people sick: ‘Race’, ideology and health research. Open University Press.
Allan, B., & Smylie, J. (2015). First Peoples, second class treatment: The role of racism in the health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. http://www.wellesleyinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Report-First-Peoples-Second-Class-Treatment-Final.pdf
Anaya, J. (2014). Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, James Anaya, on the situation of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. https://www.refworld.org/docid/53eb3b774.html
Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1453-1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X
Battiste, M. (Ed.) (2000). Reclaiming Indigenous voice and vision. University of British Columbia Press.
Battiste, M., Bell, L., & Findlay, L. M. (2002). Decolonizing education in Canadian universities: An interdisciplinary, international, Indigenous research project. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 26(2), 82–95.
Blanchet Garneau, A., Browne, A. J., & Varcoe, C. (2017). Drawing on antiracist approaches toward a critical antidiscriminatory pedagogy for nursing. Nursing Inquiry, 25(1), e12211. https://doi.org/10.1111/nin.12211
Bourassa, C., McKay-McNabb, K., & Hampton, M. (2004). Racism, sexism, and colonialism: The impact on the health of Aboriginal women in Canada. Canadian Women Studies, 24(1), 23–29.
Brian Sinclair Working Group. (2017). Out of sight: A summary of the events leading up to Brian Sinclair’s death and the inquest that examined it and the interim recommendations of the Brian Sinclair Working Group. https://media.winnipegfreepress.com/documents/Out_of_Sight_Final.pdf
British Columbia Assembly of First Nations, First Nations Summit, Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs, & Government of British Columbia. (2005). The Transformative Change Accord: First Nations health plan. Supporting the health and wellness of First Nations in British Columbia. http://www.nccah-ccnsa.ca/docs/social%20determinates/FirstNationsHealthImplementationPlan_Combo_LowRes.pdf
British Columbia Provincial Health Officer. (2002). Report on the health of British Columbians. Provincial health officer’s annual report 2001. The health and well-being of Aboriginal people in British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/health/about-bc-s-health-care-system/office-of-the-provincial-health-officer/reports-publications/annual-reports/phoannual2001.pdf
Browne, A. J. (2005). Discourses influencing nurses’ perceptions of First Nations patients. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 37(4), 62–87.
Browne, A. J. (2017). Moving beyond description: Closing the health equity gap by redressing racism impacting Indigenous populations. Social Science and Medicine, 184, 23–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.045
Browne, A. J., Smye, V. L., & Varcoe, C. (2005). The relevance of postcolonial theoretical perspectives to research in Aboriginal health. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 37(4), 16–37.
Browne, A. J., Smye, V. L., & Varcoe, C. (2007). Postcolonial-feminist theoretical perspectives and women’s health. In M. H. Morrow, O. Hankivsky, & C. M. Varcoe (Eds.), Women’s health in Canada: Critical perspectives on theory and policy (pp. 124–142). University of Toronto Press.
Browne, A. J., & Varcoe, C. (2006). Critical cultural perspectives and health care involving Aboriginal Peoples. Contemporary Nurse, 22(2), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2006.22.2.155
Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Ford-Gilboe, M., & Wathen, C. N., on behalf of the EQUIP Research Team. (2015). EQUIP Healthcare: An overview of a multi-component intervention to enhance equity-oriented care in primary health care settings. International Journal for Equity in Health, 14(152). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-015-0271-y
Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Ford-Gilboe, M., Wathen, C. N., Smye, V., Jackson, B. E., Wallace, B., Pauly, B., Herbert, C. P., Lavoie, J. G., Wong, S. T., & Garneau, A. B. (2018). Disruption as opportunity: Impacts of an organizational health equity intervention in primary care clinics. International Journal for Equity in Health, 17(1), 154. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-018-0820-2
Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Lavoie, J., Smye, V., Wong, S., Krause, M., Tu, D., Godwin, O., Khan, K., & Fridkin, A. (2016). Enhancing health care equity with Indigenous populations: Evidence-based strategies from an ethnographic study. BMC Health Services Research, 16(544). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1707-9
Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Smye, V. L., Reimer-Kirkham, S., Lynam, M. J., & Wong, S. T. (2009). Cultural safety and the challenges of translating critically oriented knowledge in practice. Nursing Philosophy, 10(3), 167–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-769X.2009.00406.x
Calliste, A., & Dei, G. J. S. (2000). Power, knowledge and anti-racist education: A critical reader. Fernwood Publishing.
Chadha, E. (2020, November 1). Why it’s dangerous to be disabled and Indigenous in Canada. National News Watch. https://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2020/11/01/why-its-dangerous-to-be-disabled-and-indigenous-in-canada/#.X7RM9GhKhPb
Churchill, M., Parent-Bergeron, M., Smylie, J., Ward, C., Fridkin, A., Smylie, D., & Firestone, M. (2017). Evidence brief: Wise practices for Indigenous-specific cultural safety training. http://soahac.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CS_WisePractices_FINAL_11.02.17.pdf
Coly, A., & Parry, G. (2017). Evaluating complex health interventions: A guide to rigorous research designs. https://academyhealth.org/evaluationguide
Coulthard, G. S. (2014). Red skin, white masks: Rejecting the colonial politics of recognition. University of Minnesota Press. https://doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816679645.001.0001
Craig, K. D., Holmes, C., Hudspith, M., Moor, G., Moosa-Mitha, M., Varcoe, C., & Wallace, B. (2020). Pain in persons who are marginalized by social conditions. Pain, 161(2), 261–265. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001719
Curtis, E., Jones, R., Tipene-Leach, D., Walker, C., Loring, B., Paine, S.-J., & Reid, P. (2019). Why cultural safety rather than cultural competency is required to achieve health equity: A literature review and recommended definition. International Journal for Equity in Health, 18(1), 174–174. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-019-1082-3
Dei, G. J. S., & McDermott, M. (2014). Politics of anti-racism education: In search of strategies for transformative learning (Vol. 27). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7627-2_1
Dell, E. M., Firestone, M., Smylie, J., & Vaillancourt, S. (2016). Cultural safety and providing care to Aboriginal patients in the emergency department. Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine, 18(4), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1017/cem.2015.100
Dion Stout, M. (2012). Ascribed health and wellness, Atikowisi miýw-¯ay¯awin, to achieved health and wellness, Kaskitamasowin miýw-a¯ay¯awin: Shifting the paradigm. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 44(2), 11–14.
Dion Stout, M., & Downey, B. (2006). Nursing, Indigenous Peoples and cultural safety: So what? Now what? Contemporary Nurse, 22(2), 327–332. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2006.22.2.327
Donnor, J. K., & Ladson-Billings, G. (2018). In K. D. Norman & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed., pp. 195–213). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publishing.
Downing, R., & Kowal, E. (2011). A postcolonial analysis of Indigenous cultural awareness training for health workers. Health Sociology Review, 20(1), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.5172/hesr.2011.20.1.5
Downing, R., Kowal, E., & Paradies, Y. (2011). Indigenous cultural training for health workers in Australia. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 23(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzr008
Duthie, D. (2019). Embedding Indigenous knowledges and cultural safety in social work curricula: Commentary on “creating a culturally safe space when teaching Aboriginal content in social work: A scoping review” (Fernando & Bennett, 2018). Australian Social Work, 72(1), 113–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2018.1534978
Dyck, I., & Kearns, R. (1995). Transforming the relations of research: Towards culturally safe geographies of health and healing. Health & Place, 1(3), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/1353-8292(95)00020-M
Ermine, W. (2007). The ethical space of engagement. Indigenous Law Journal, 6(1), 193–203.
Essed, P. (2002). Everyday racism: A new approach to the study of racism. In P. Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Eds.), Race critical theories (pp. 176–194). Blackwell Publishers.
Fernando, T., & Bennett, B. (2019). Creating a culturally safe space when teaching Aboriginal content in social work: A scoping review. Australian Social Work, 72(1), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2018.1518467
Firestone, M., Syrette, J., Jourdain, T., Recollet, V., & Smylie, J. (2019). “I feel safe just coming here because there are other Native brothers and sisters”: Findings from a community-based evaluation of the Niiwin Wendaanimak Four Winds Wellness Program. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 110(4), 404–413. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-019-00192-6
First Nations Health Authority. (2016). FNHA’s policy statement on cultural safety and humility. https://www.fnha.ca/documents/fnha-policy-statement-cultural-safety-and-humility.pdf
First Nations Health Authority. (2017). All regulated health professions commit to a safer health system for First Nations and Aboriginal People [Press release]. https://www.fnha.ca/about/news-and-events/news/all-regulated-health-professions-commit-to-a-safer-health-system-for-first-nations-and-aboriginal-people
Fiske, J., & Browne, A. J. (2006). Aboriginal citizen, discredited medical subject: Paradoxical constructions of Aboriginal women’s subjectivity in Canadian health care policies. Policy Sciences, 39(1), 91–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-006-9013-8
Ford-Gilboe, M., Wathen, C. N., Varcoe, C., Herbert, C., Jackson, B. E., Lavoie, J. G., Pauly, B., Perrin, N. A., Smye, V., Wallace, B., Wong, S. T., & Browne, A. J. (2018). How equity-oriented health care affects health: Key mechanisms and implications for primary health care practice and policy. Milbank Quarterly, 96(4), 635–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12349
Franklin, H., Paradies, Y., & Kowal, E. (2014). Critical evaluation of a program to foster reflexive antiracism. International Journal of Social Science Research, 2(2), 20–46. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijssr.v2i2.5619
Gandhi, L. (1998). Postcolonial theory: A critical introduction. Columbia University Press.
Government of Ontario (2016). Anti-Racism Directorate. https://www.ontario.ca/page/anti-racism-directorate?_ga=1.32535998.1497629888.1467298446
Government of Ontario. (2018). Walking together: Ontario’s long-term strategy to end violence against Indigenous women. Year two update—March 2018. https://files.ontario.ca/walking_together_2-year_progress_report_web_englishv2.pdf
Greenwood, M., Leeuw, S. d., & Lindsay, N. M. (Eds.). (2018). Determinants of Indigenous Peoples’ health in Canada: Beyond the social (2nd ed.). Canadian Scholars’ Press.
Hadjipavlou, G., Varcoe, C., Tu, D., Dehoney, J., Price, R., & Browne, A. J. (2018). “All my relations”: Experiences and perceptions of Indigenous patients connecting with Indigenous Elders in an inner city primary care partnership for mental health and well-being. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 190(20), E608–E615. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.171390
Hansen, H., & Metzl, J. M. (Eds.). (2019). Structural competency in mental health and medicine: A case-based approach to treating the social determinants of health. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10525-9
Henry, F., Rees, T., & Tator, C. (2010). The colour of democracy: Racism in Canadian society (4th ed.). Thomas Nelson.
Henry, R., LaVallee, A., Van Styvendale, N., & Innes, R. A. (Eds.). (2018). Global Indigenous health: Reconciling the past, engaging the present, animating the future. The University of Arizona Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv513dtj
Herring, S., Spangaro, J., Lauw, M., & McNamara, L. (2013). The intersection of trauma, racism, and cultural competence in effective work with Aboriginal people: Waiting for trust. Australian Social Work, 66(1), 104–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2012.697566
Hole, R. D., Evans, M., Berg, L. D., Bottorff, J. L., Dingwall, C., Alexis, C., Nyberg, J., & Smith, M. L. (2015). Visibility and voice: Aboriginal people experience culturally safe and unsafe health care. Qualitative Health Research, 25(12), 1662–1674. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314566325
Horrill, T. C., Linton, J., Lavoie, J. G., Martin, D., Wiens, A., & Schultz, A. S. H. (2019). Access to cancer care among Indigenous Peoples in Canada: A scoping review. Social Science and Medicine, 238, 112495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112495
Indian Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. I-5). https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/i-5/
Joyce Echaquan: Outcry in Canada over treatment of dying Indigenous woman. (2020, September 30). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-54350027
Kelm, M. E. (1998). Colonizing bodies: Aboriginal health and healing in British Columbia, 1900–50. University of British Columbia Press.
Kincheloe, J. L., McLaren, P., Steinberg, S. R., & Monzo, L. D. (2018). Critical pedagogy and qualitative research: Moving to the bricolage. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed., pp. 236–260). SAGE Publishing.
Kirkup, K. (2020, November 6). Health experts urge Ottawa to amend Canada Health Act to include anti-racism pillar. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-health-experts-urge-ottawa-to-amend-canada-health-act-to-include-anti/
Kirmayer, L. J., Gone, J. P., & Moses, J. (2014). Rethinking historical trauma. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514536358
Kitching, G. T., Firestone, M., Schei, B., Wolfe, S., Bourgeois, C., O’Campo, P., Rotondi, M., Nisenbaum, R., Maddox, R., & Smylie, J. (2019). Unmet health needs and discrimination by healthcare providers among an Indigenous population in Toronto, Canada. Canadian Journal Public Health, 111, 40–49. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-019-00242-z
Kovach, M. (2018). Doing Indigenous methodologies—a letter to a research class. In K. D. Norman & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed., pp. 214-–234). SAGE Publishing.
Krieger, N. (2014). Discrimination and health inequities. International Journal of Health Services, 44(4), 643–710. https://doi.org/10.2190/HS.44.4.b
Krieger, N. (2020). Measures of racism, sexism, heterosexism, and gender binarism for health equity research: From structural injustice to embodied harm—an ecosocial analysis. Annual Review of Public Health, 41(1), 37–62. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094017
Lavoie, J. G., Kaufert, J., Browne, A. J., & O’Neil, J. D. (2016). Managing Matajoosh: Determinants of First Nations’ cancer care decisions. BMC Health Services Research, 16, 402. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1665-2
Law Society of Ontario. (n.d.). Accreditation criteria. https://lso.ca/lawyers/enhancing-competence/cpd-accreditation-for-licensees/accreditation-criteria#EDI-Criteria
Mackean, T., Baum, F., Fisher, M., & Friel, S. (2019). A framework to assess cultural safety in Australian public policy. Health Promotion International, 35(2), 340–351. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daz011
Maxwell, K. (2014). Historicizing historical trauma theory: Troubling the trans-generational transmission paradigm. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 407–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461514531317
McCallum, M. J. L., & Perry, A. (2018). Structures of indifference: An Indigenous life and death in a Canadian city. University of Manitoba Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/02722011.2019.1653694
McConaghy, C. (2000). Rethinking Indigenous education: Culturalism, colonialism and the politics of knowing. Post Pressed.
McIvor, S. D. (2004). Aboriginal women unmasked: Using equality litigation to advance women’s rights. Canadian Journal of Women & the Law, 16(1), 106–136.
Monchalin, R., Smylie, J., & Nowgesic, E. (2019). “I guess I shouldn’t come back here”: Racism and discrimination as a barrier to accessing health and social services for urban Métis women in Toronto, Canada. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 7, 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-019-00653-1
Monture-Angus, P., & Turpel, M. E. (1995). Thunder in my soul: A Mohawk woman speaks. Fernwood Publishing.
National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. (2019a). Reclaiming power and place: Executive summary of the final report. https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Executive_Summary.pdf
National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. (2019b). Reclaiming power and place: Final report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/
Nelson, S. E., Browne, A. J., & Lavoie, J. G. (2016). Representations of Indigenous Peoples and use of pain medications in Canadian news media. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2016.7.1.5
Newton, J., & Soltani, A. (Eds.). (2017). New framings on anti-racism and resistance: Vol. 2. Resistance and the new futurity (1st ed.). Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6351-131-5
O’Neil, J. D., Reading, J. R., & Leader, A. (1998). Changing the relations of surveillance: The development of a discourse of resistance in Aboriginal epidemiology. Human Organization, 57(2), 230–237. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.57.2.b7628vwvg7q127m8
Oetter, H., & Johansen, C. (2017, March 21). Comment: B.C. health professions’ pledge to First Nations. Times Colonist. https://www.timescolonist.com/opinion/op-ed/comment-b-c-health-professions-pledge-to-first-nations-1.12409739
Okun, T. (2010). The emperor has no clothes: Teaching about race and racism to people who don't want to know. Information Age Publishing.
Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2005). Policy and guidelines on racism and racial discrimination. http://www3.ohrc.on.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/Policy_and_guidelines_on_racism_and_racial_discrimination.pdf
Paradies, Y. (2018). Racism and Indigenous health. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Global Public Health. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190632366.013.86
Paradies, Y., & Cunningham, J. (2009). Experiences of racism among urban Indigenous Australians: Findings from the DRUID study. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(3), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870802065234
Public Health Agency of Canada. (2019). Addressing stigma: Towards a more inclusive health system. The Chief Public Health Officer’s report on the state of public health in Canada 2019. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/addressing-stigma-toward-more-inclusive-health-system.html
Public Health Agency of Canada, & Pan-Canadian Public Health Network. (2018). Key health inequalities in Canada: A national portrait. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-aspc/documents/services/publications/science-research/key-health-inequalities-canada-national-portrait-executive-summary/hir-full-report-eng.pdf
Ramsden, I. (1993). Kawa Whakaruruhau. Cultural safety in nursing education in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 8(3), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.36951/NgPxNZ.1993.009
Ramsden, I. (2000). Cultural safety/Kawa Whakaruruhau ten years on: A personal overview. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 15(1), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.36951/NgPxNZ.2000.001
Ramsden, I. (2002). Cultural safety and nursing education in Aotearoa and Te Waipounamu [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wellington]. https://viewer.waireto.victoria.ac.nz/client/viewer/IE912183/details?dps_dvs=1623264044465~161
Razack, S. H. (2015). Dying from improvements: Inquests and inquiries into Indigenous deaths in custody. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division.
Reimer-Kirkham, S., & Anderson, J. M. (2002). Postcolonial nursing scholarship: From epistemology to method. Advances in Nursing Science, 25(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1097/00012272-200209000-00004
Roman, L. G. (Ed.) (1993). White is a color! White defensiveness, postmodernism and anti-racism pedagogy. Routledge.
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples: Vol. 4. Perspectives and realities. https://wizard.unbc.ca/record=b1156379~S3
San’yas Indigenous Cultural Safety Training. (n.d.). San’yas: Indigenous Cultural Safety Training. https://www.sanyas.ca/training
Sayani, A. (2019). Health equity in national cancer control plans: An Analysis of the Ontario Cancer Plan. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 8(9), 550–556. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijhpm.2019.40
Schierhout, G., Hains, J., Si, D., Kennedy, C., Cox, R., Kwedza, R., O’Donoghue, L., Fittock, M., Brands, J., Lonergan, K., Dowden, M., & Bailie, R. (2013). Evaluating the effectiveness of a multifaceted, multilevel continuous quality improvement program in primary health care: Developing a realist theory of change. Implementation Science, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-8-119
Sinha, V., & Kozlowski, A. (2013). The structure of Aboriginal child welfare in Canada. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 4(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2013.4.2.2
Statistics Canada. (2019). Aboriginal Peoples highlight tables, 2016 Census. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/abo-aut/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&S=99&O=A&RPP=25
Sukhera, J., Gonzalez, C., & Watling, C. J. (2020). Implicit bias in health professions: From recognition to transformation. Academic Medicine, 95(5), 717–723. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000003173
Tait, C. L. (2009). Disruptions in nature, disruptions in society: Aboriginal Peoples of Canada and the “making” of fetal alcohol syndrome. In L. J. Kirmayer & G. G. Valaskakis (Eds.), Healing traditions: The mental health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada (pp. 196–218). UBC Press.
Tang, S. Y., & Browne, A. J. (2008). ‘Race’ matters: Racialization and egalitarian discourses involving Aboriginal people in the Canadian health care context. Ethnicity and Health, 13(2), 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557850701830307
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC). (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/
Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf
Turpel-Lafond, M. E. (2020). In plain sight: Addressing Indigenous-specific racism and discrimination in B.C. health care. https://engage.gov.bc.ca/app/uploads/sites/613/2020/11/In-Plain-Sight-Full-Report.pdf
United Nations. (2016). State of the world’s Indigenous Peoples: Vol. 2. Indigenous Peoples’ access to health services. https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/books/9789210575553
Vallianatos, M. A. (2018). Best approaches for anti-racist education. https://www.uvic.ca/equity/education/anti-racism/index.php
van de Kleut, G. (2011). The Whiteness of literacy practice in Ontario. Race Ethnicity and Education, 14(5), 699-726. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2011.585338
Varcoe, C. (2006). Doing participatory action research in a racist world. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 28(5), 525–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945906287706
Varcoe, C., Brown, H., Calam, B., Harvey, T., & Tallio, M. (2013). Help bring back the celebration of life: A community-based participatory study of rural Aboriginal women’s maternity experiences and outcomes. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 13(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-13-26
Varcoe, C., Browne, A. J., & Blanchet Garneau, A. (2019). Beyond stress and coping: The relevance of critical theoretical perspectives to conceptualising racial discrimination in health research. Health Sociology Review, 28(3), 245–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/14461242.2019.1642124
Varcoe, C., Browne, A. J., & Kang, B. (2019). Culture and cultural safety: Beyond cultural inventories. In D. Gregory, C. Raymond-Seniuk, & L. Patrick (Eds.), Canadian fundamentals of nursing (2nd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Varcoe, C., Bungay, V., Browne, A. J., Wilson, E., Wathen, C. N., Kolar, K., Perrin, N., Comber, S., Garneau, A. B., Byres, D., Black, A., & Price, R. (2019). EQUIP Emergency: Study protocol for an organizational intervention to promote equity in health care. BMC Health Services Research, 19(1), 687. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4494-2
Varcoe, C., Ford-Gilboe, M., Browne, A. J., Perrin, N., Bungay, V., McKenzie, H., Smye, V., Price, R., Koushambhi, J. I., & Dion Stout, M. (2019). The efficacy of a health promotion intervention for Indigenous women: Reclaiming our spirits. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518820818
Varcoe, C., & McCormick, J. (2007). Racing around the classroom margins: Race, racism and teaching nursing. In L. Young & B. Patterson (Eds.), Learning nursing: Student-centered theories, models, and strategies for nurse educators (pp. 439–446). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Vernon, R., & Papps, E. (2015). Cultural safety and continuing competence. In D. Wepa (Ed.), Cultural safety in Aotearoa New Zealand (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316151136.007
Ward, C. (2018). Teaching about race and racism in the classroom: Managing the Indigenous elephant in the room [Doctoral dissertation, Simon Fraser University). Simon Fraser University Summit Institutional Repository. http://summit.sfu.ca/item/18705
Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Davis, B. A. (2019). Racism and health: Evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health, 40(1), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750
Wrathall, D., Wilson, K., Rosenberg, M. W., Snyder, M., & Barberstock, S. (2020). Long‐term trends in health status and determinants of health among the off‐reserve Indigenous population in Canada, 1991-2012. The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien, 64(2) 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/cag.12592
Wyatt, R., Laderman, M., Botwinick, L., Mate, K., & Whittington, J. (2016). Achieving health equity: A guide for health care organizations. http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/IHIWhitePapers/Achieving-Health-Equity.aspx
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Annette J. Browne, Colleen Varcoe, Cheryl Ward
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
In keeping with IIPJ's Open Access policy, IIPJ has a shared approach to copyright. A shared approach means that authors do not have to waive all of their rights to the work published in IIPJ. By submitting to IIPJ, the author(s) grant(s) IIPJ the right to:
- Copy edit the article,
- Display the article in perpetuity, and
- Enforce the conditions of the Creative Commons license associated with the article.
All articles published in IIPJ carry the Creative Commons Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivatives license (click here for the human-readable summary and here for the legal code).
This means that the article can be copied or redistributed without written permission from the author(s) or IIPJ if the following conditions are met:
- IIPJ is appropriately credited as the original source. The reference should include the article's DOI (Digital Object Identifier), which helps us track the dissemination of articles published in IIPJ.
- The article is not being used for a commercial purpose. Users must be able to access the reprinted or republished article without paying any fee.
- The article is not altered from its original form. This means it cannot be edited, transformed, remixed, or truncated in any way. This policy protects our authors from having their work or intent misrepresented.
Any reprints, republications, or distributions that do not meet all of these conditions must be approved in writing by the author(s) of the article and IIPJ.
IIPJ will not grant permission to any publisher that requires authors or IIPJ to waive any of their rights to the article.
Authors who wish to reprint, republish, or distribute their article published in IIPJ for any commercial purpose must obtain written permission from IIPJ and provide appropriate attribution.
IIPJ will consider accepting articles that have been previously published. However, authors submitting articles of this nature must:
- Indicate that the article was previously published,
- Provide details of all previous publications (that is, source, publication date, format, etc.),
- Describe how their IIPJ submission differs from the original publication, and
- Provide written permission to republish the article from the copyright holder(s) if applicable.
