Abstract
Over the past two decades, several fluorescence- and non-fluorescence-based optical microscopes have been developed to break the diffraction limited barrier. In this review, the basic principles implemented in microscopy for super-resolution are described. Furthermore, achievements and instrumentation for super-resolution are presented. In addition to imaging, other applications that use super-resolution optical microscopes are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbe E, 1873. Beiträge zur theorie des mikroskops und der mikroskopischen wahrnehmung. Arch Mikrosk Anat, 9(1):413–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02956173
Astratov VN, Darafsheh A, 2017. Methods and Systems for Super-resolution Optical Imaging Using High-Index of Refraction Microspheres and Microcylinders. University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
Azuma T, Kei T, 2015. Super-resolution spinning-disk confocal microscopy using optical photon reassignment. Opt Expr, 23(11):15003–15011. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.23.015003
Balzarotti F, Eilers Y, Gwosch KC, et al., 2017. Nanometer resolution imaging and tracking of fluorescent molecules with minimal photon fluxes. Science, 355(6325):606–612. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aak9913
Barbiero M, Castelletto S, Gan XS, et al., 2017. Spin-manipulated nanoscopy for single nitrogen-vacancy center localizations in nanodiamonds. Light Sci Appl, 6(11):e17085. https://doi.org/10.1038/lsa.2017.85
Barry JF, Turner MJ, Schloss JM, et al., 2016. Optical magnetic detection of single-neuron action potentials using quantum defects in diamond. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 113(49):14133–14138. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1601513113
Bates M, Blosser TR, Zhuang XW, 2005. Short-range spectroscopic ruler based on a single-molecule optical switch. Phys Rev Lett, 94(10):108101. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.108101
Berning S, Willig KI, Steffens H, et al., 2012. Nanoscopy in a living mouse brain. Science, 335(6068):551. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1215369
Betzig E, 1995. Proposed method for molecular optical imaging. Opt Lett, 20(3):237–239. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.20.000237
Betzig E, Patterson GH, Sougrat R, et al., 2006. Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution. Science, 313(5793):1642–1645. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127344
Biteen JS, Thompson MA, Tselentis NK, et al., 2008. Super-resolution imaging in liv. Caulobacter crescentus cells using photoswitchable EYFP. Nat Methods, 5(11):947–949. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1258
Böhm U, Hell SW, Schmidt R, 2016. 4Pi-RESOLFT nanoscopy. Nat Commun, 7:10504. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms10504
Bossi M, Fölling J, Belov VN, et al., 2008. Multicolor far-field fluorescence nanoscopy through isolated detection of distinct molecular species. Nano Lett, 8(8):2463–2468. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl801471d
Bretschneider S, Eggeling C, Hell SW, 2007. Breaking the diffraction barrier in fluorescence microscopy by optical shelving. Phys Rev Lett, 98(21):218103. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.218103
Burnette DT, Sengupta P, Dai YH, et al., 2011. Bleaching/blinking assisted localization microscopy for superresolution imaging using standard fluorescent molecules. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 108(52):21081–21086. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1117430109
Burnette DT, Shao L, Ott C, et al., 2014. A contractile and counterbalancing adhesion system controls the 3D shape of crawling cells. J Cell Biol, 205(1):83–96. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201311104
Butkevich AN, Mitronova GY, Sidenstein SC, et al., 2016. Fluorescent rhodamines and fluorogenic carbopyronines for super - resolution STED microscopy in living cells. Angew Chem Int Ed, 55(10):3290–3294. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201511018
Cao YY, Gan ZS, Jia BH, et al., 2011. High-photosensitive resin for super-resolution direct-laser-writing based on photoinhibited polymerization. Opt Expr, 19(20):19486–19494. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.19.019486
Chen XD, Zou CL, Gong ZJ, et al., 2015. Subdiffraction optical manipulation of the charge state of nitrogen vacancy center in diamond. Light Sci Appl, 4(1):e230. https://doi.org/10.1038/lsa.2015.3
Chen ZG, Taflove A, Backman V, 2004. Photonic nanojet enhancement of backscattering of light by nanoparticles: a potential novel visible-light ultramicroscopy technique. Opt Expr, 12(7):1214–1220. https://doi.org/10.1364/OPEX.12.001214
Chmyrov A, Keller J, Grotjohann T, et al., 2013. Nanoscopy with more than 100,000 ‘doughnuts’. Nat Methods, 10(8): 737–740. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2556
Cordes T, Strackharn M, Stahl SW, et al., 2010. Resolving single-molecule assembled patterns with superresolution blink-microscopy. Nano Lett, 10(2):645–651. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl903730r
Cox S, Rosten E, Monypenny J, et al., 2012. Bayesian localization microscopy reveals nanoscale podosome dynamics. Nat Methods, 9(2):195–200. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1812
Darafsheh A, 2013. Optical Super-Resolution and Periodical Focusing Effects by Dielectric Microspheres. PhD Thesis, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, North Carolina, USA.
Darafsheh A, Walsh GF, Dal Negro L, et al., 2012. Optical super-resolution by high-index liquid-immersed microspheres. Appl Phys Lett, 101(14):141128. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4757600
Darafsheh A, Limberopoulos NI, Derov JS, et al., 2014. Advantages of microsphere-assisted super-resolution imaging technique over solid immersion lens and confocal microscopies. Appl Phys Lett, 104(6):061117. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4864760
Davis HC, Ramesh P, Bhatnagar A, et al., 2018. Mapping the microscale origins of magnetic resonance image contrast with subcellular diamond magnetometry. Nat Commun, 9(1):131. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02471-7
Degen CL, Poggio M, Mamin HJ, et al., 2009. Nanoscale magnetic resonance imaging. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 106(5):1313–1317. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0812068106
de Luca GM, Breedijk RMP, Brandt RAJ, et al., 2013. Re-scan confocal microscopy: scanning twice for better resolution. Biomed Opt Expr, 4(11):2644–2656. https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.4.002644
Dertinger T, Colyer R, Iyer G, et al., 2009. Fast, background-free, 3D super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI). Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 106(52): 22287–22292. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907866106
Dertinger T, Colyer R, Vogel R, et al., 2012. Superresolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI). In: Zahavy E, Ordentlich A, Yitzhaki S, et al. (Eds.), Nano-biotechnology for Biomedical and Diagnostic Research. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, p. 17–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2555-3_2
D’Este E, Kamin D, Göttfert F, et al., 2015. STED nanoscopy reveals the ubiquity of subcortical cytoskeleton periodicity in living neurons. Cell Rep, 10(8):1246–1251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.007
Dickson RM, Cubitt AB, Tsien RY, et al., 1997. On/off blinking and switching behaviour of single molecules of green fluorescent protein. Nature, 388(6640):355–358. https://doi.org/10.1038/41048
Donnert G, Keller J, Wurm CA, et al., 2007. Two-color far-field fluorescence nanoscopy. Biophys J, 92(8): L67–L69. https://doi.org/10.1529/biophysj.107.104497
Dunin-Borkowski RE, McCartney MR, Frankel RB, et al., 1998. Magnetic microstructure of magnetotactic bacteria by electron holography. Science, 282(5395):1868–1870. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.282.5395.1868
Dyba M, Hell SW, 2002. Focal spots of size λ/23 open up far-field florescence microscopy at 33 nm axial resolution. Phys Rev Lett, 88(16):163901. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.163901
Farahani JN, Schibler MJ, Bentolila LA, 2010. Stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy: from theory to practice. Microsc Sci Technol Appl Educ, 2(4): 1539–1547.
Ferrand P, Wenger J, Devilez A, et al., 2008. Direct imaging of photonic nanojets. Opt Expr, 16(10):6930–6940. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.16.006930
Finkler A, Segev Y, Myasoedov Y, et al., 2010. Self-aligned nanoscale SQUID on a tip. Nano Lett, 10(3):1046–1049. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl100009r
Fiolka R, Shao L, Rego EH, et al., 2012. Time-lapse two-color 3D imaging of live cells with doubled resolution using structured illumination. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 109(14): 5311–5315. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1119262109
Fischer J, Wegener M, 2011. Three-dimensional direct laser writing inspired by stimulated-emission-depletion microscopy. Opt Mater Expr, 1(4):614–624. https://doi.org/10.1364/OME.1.000614
Fischer J, Wegener M, 2013. Three-dimensional optical laser lithography beyond the diffraction limit. Laser Photon Rev, 7(1):22–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/lpor.201100046
Fischer J, von Freymann G, Wegener M, 2010. The materials challenge in diffraction-unlimited direct-laser-writing optical lithography. Adv Mater, 22(32):3578–3582. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201000892
Fölling J, Bossi M, Bock H, et al., 2008. Fluorescence nanoscopy by ground-state depletion and single-molecule return. Nat Methods, 5(11):943–945. https://doi.org/10.1038/NMETH.1257
Galiani S, Waithe D, Reglinski K, et al., 2016. Superresolution microscopy reveals compartmentalization of peroxisomal membrane proteins. J Biol Chem, 291(33): 16948–16962. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M116.734038
Gan ZS, Cao YY, Evans RA, et al., 2013. Three-dimensional deep sub-diffraction optical beam lithography with 9 nm feature size. Nat Commun, 4:2061. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3061
Geissbuehler S, Sharipov A, Godinat A, et al., 2014. Live-cell multiplane three-dimensional super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging. Nat Commun, 5:5830. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6830
Glenn DR, Lee K, Park H, et al., 2015. Single-cell magnetic imaging using a quantum diamond microscope. Nat Methods, 12(8):736–738. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.3449
Göttfert F, Wurm CA, Mueller V, et al., 2013. Coaligned dual-channel STED nanoscopy and molecular diffusion analysis at 20 nm resolution. Biophys J, 105(1): L01–L03. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2013.05.029
Gregor I, Spiecker M, Petrovsky R, et al., 2017. Rapid nonlinear image scanning microscopy. Nat Methods, 14(11):1087–1089. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.4467
Grotjohann T, Testa I, Leutenegger M, et al., 2011. Diffraction-unlimited all-optical imaging and writing with a photochromic GFP. Nature, 478(7368):204–208. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10497
Gruber A, Dräbenstedt A, Tietz C, et al., 1997. Scanning confocal optical microscopy and magnetic resonance on single defect centers. Science, 276(5321):2012–2014. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5321.2012
Gu M, 1996. Principles of Three-Dimensional Imaging in Confocal Microscopes. World Scientific, Singapore.
Gu M, 2000. Advanced Optical Imaging Theory. Springer, Berlin, Germany.
Gu M, Cao YY, Castelletto S, et al., 2013. Super-resolving single nitrogen vacancy centers within single nanodiamonds using a localization microscope. Opt Expr, 21(15):17639–17646. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.21.017639
Gu M, Kang H, Li XP, 2014. Breaking the diffraction-limited resolution barrier in fiber-optical two-photon fluorescence endoscopy by an azimuthally-polarized beam. Sci Rep, 4:3627. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03627
Gu M, Zhang QM, Lamon S, 2016. Nanomaterials for optical data storage. Nat Rev Mater, 1(12):16070. https://doi.org/10.1038/natrevmats.2016.70
Gustafsson MGL, 2000. Surpassing the lateral resolution limit by a factor of two using structured illumination microscopy. J Microsc, 198(2):82–87. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2818.2000.00710.x
Gustafsson MGL, 2005. Nonlinear structured-illumination microscopy: wide-field fluorescence imaging with theoretically unlimited resolution. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 102(37):13081–13086. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406877102
Gustafsson MGL, Shao L, Carlton PM, et al., 2008. Three-dimensional resolution doubling in wide-field fluorescence microscopy by structured illumination. Biophys J, 94(12):4957–4970. https://doi.org/10.1529/biophysj.107.120345
Han S, Xiong Y, Genov D, et al., 2008. Ray optics at a deep-subwavelength scale: a transformation optics approach. Nano Lett, 8(12):4243–4247. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl801942x
Hell SW, 2007. Far-field optical nanoscopy. Science, 316(5828):1153–1158. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1137395
Hell SW, Kroug M, 1995. Ground-state-depletion fluorscence microscopy: a concept for breaking the diffraction resolution limit. Appl Phys B, 60(5):495–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01081333
Hell SW, Wichmann J, 1994. Breaking the diffraction resolution limit by stimulated emission: stimulated-emission-depletion fluorescence microscopy. Opt Lett, 19(11):780–782. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.19.000780
Hess ST, Girirajan TPK, Mason MD, 2006. Ultra-high resolution imaging by fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy. Biophys J, 91(11):4258–4272. https://doi.org/10.1529/biophysj.106.091116
Hirvonen LM, Wicker K, Mandula O, et al., 2009. Structured illumination microscopy of a living cell. Eur Biophys J, 38(6):807–812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00249-009-0501-6
Hofmann M, Eggeling C, Jakobs S, et al., 2005. Breaking the diffraction barrier in fluorescence microscopy at low light intensities by using reversibly photoswitchable proteins. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 102(49):17565–17569. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0506010102
Hortigon-Vinagre MP, Zamora V, Burton FL, et al., 2016. The use of ratiometric fluorescence measurements of the voltage sensitive dye Di-4-ANEPPS to examine action potential characteristics and drug effects on human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Toxicol Sci, 154(2):320–331. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfw171
Hu YS, Nan XL, Sengupta P, et al., 2013. Accelerating 3B single-molecule super-resolution microscopy with cloud computing. Nat Methods, 10(2):96–97. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2335
Huang B, Jones SA, Brandenburg B, et al., 2008a. Whole-cell 3D STORM reveals interactions between cellular structures with nanometer-scale resolution. Nat Methods, 5(12):1047–1052. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1274
Huang B, Wang WQ, Bates M, et al., 2008b. Three-dimensional super-resolution imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy. Science, 319(5864): 810–813. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153529
Ikonen P, Simovski C, Tretyakov S, et al., 2007. Magnification of subwavelength field distributions at microwave frequencies using a wire medium slab operating in the canalization regime. Appl Phys Lett, 91(10):104102. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2767996
Jacob Z, Alekseyev LV, Narimanov E, 2006. Optical hyperlens: far-field imaging beyond the diffraction limit. Opt Expr, 14(18):8247–8256. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.14.008247
Jaskula JC, Bauch E, Arroyo-Camejo S, et al., 2017. Superresolution optical magnetic imaging and spectroscopy using individual electronic spins in diamond. Opt Expr, 25(10):11048–11064. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.25.011048
Jones SA, Shim SH, He J, et al., 2011. Fast, three-dimensional super-resolution imaging of live cells. Nat Methods, 8(6):499–505. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1605
Juette MF, Gould TJ, Lessard MD, et al., 2008. Three-dimensional sub-100 nm resolution fluorescence microscopy of thick samples. Nat Methods, 5(6):527–529. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1211
Kildishev AV, Shalaev VM, 2008. Engineering space for light via transformation optics. Opt Lett, 33(1):43–45. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.33.000043
Kim MS, Scharf T, Haq MT, et al., 2011. Subwavelength-size solid immersion lens. Opt Lett, 36(19):3930–3932. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.36.003930
Klar TA, Hell SW, 1999. Subdiffraction resolution in far-field fluorescence microscopy. Opt Lett, 24(14):954–956. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.24.000954
Kner P, Chhun BB, Griffis ER, et al., 2009. Super-resolution video microscopy of live cells by structured illumination. Nat Methods, 6(5):339–342. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1324
Kwon J, Hwang J, Park J, et al., 2015. RESOLFT nanoscopy with photoswitchable organic fluorophores. Sci Rep, 5:17804. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep17804
Lakadamyali M, Babcock H, Bates M, et al., 2012. 3D multicolor super-resolution imaging offers improved accuracy in neuron tracing. PLoS One, 7(1):e30826. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030826
Lee JY, Hong BH, Kim WY, et al., 2009. Near-field focusing and magnification through self-assembled nanoscale spherical lenses. Nature, 460(7254):498–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08173
Lee SC, Kim K, Kim J, et al., 2009. MR microscopy of micron scale structures. Magn Reson Imag, 27(6):828–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mri.2009.01.002
Le Sage D, Arai K, Glenn DR, et al., 2013. Optical magnetic imaging of living cells. Nature, 496(7446):486–489. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12072
Lesterlin C, Ball G, Schermelleh L, et al., 2014. RecA bundles mediate homology pairing between distant sisters during DNA break repair. Nature, 506(7487):249–253. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12868
Li D, Shao L, Chen BC, et al., 2015. Extended-resolution structured illumination imaging of endocytic and cytoskeletal dynamics. Science, 349(6251):3500. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab3500
Li L, Guo W, Yan YZ, et al., 2013. Label-free super-resolution imaging of adenoviruses by submerged microsphere optical nanoscopy. Light Sci Appl, 2(9):e104. https://doi.org/10.1038/lsa.2013.60
Li LJ, Gattass RR, Gershgoren E, et al., 2009. Achievin. λ/20 resolution by one-color initiation and deactivation of polymerization. Science, 324(5929):910–913. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1168996
Lidke KA, Rieger B, Jovin TM, et al., 2005. Superresolution by localization of quantum dots using blinking statistics. Opt Expr, 13(18):7052–7062. https://doi.org/10.1364/OPEX.13.007052
Liu ZW, Lee H, Xiong Y, et al., 2007. Far-field optical hyperlens magnifying sub-diffraction-limited objects. Science, 315(5819):1686. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1137368
Lukinavičius G, Reymond L, Umezawa K, et al., 2016. Fluorogenic probes for multicolor imaging in living cells. J Am Chem Soc, 138(30):9365–9368. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.6b04782
Ma CB, Liu ZW, 2010a. Focusing light into deep subwavelength using metamaterial immersion lenses. Opt Expr, 18(5):4838–4844. https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.18.004838
Ma CB, Liu ZW, 2010b. A super resolution metalens with phase compensation mechanism. Appl Phys Lett, 96(18):183103. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3427199
Ma CB, Liu ZW, 2011. Designing super-resolution metalenses by the combination of metamaterials and nanoscale plasmonic waveguide couplers. J Nanophoton, 5(1):051604. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.3579159
Ma CB, Escobar MA, Liu ZW, 2011. Extraordinary light focusing and Fourier transform properties of gradient-index metalenses. Phys Rev B, 84(19):195142. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.84.195142
Mason DR, Jouravlev MV, Kim KS, 2010. Enhanced resolution beyond the Abbe diffraction limit with wavelength-scale solid immersion lenses. Opt Lett, 35(12):2007–2009. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.35.002007
Moerner WE, Kador L, 1989. Optical detection and spectroscopy of single molecules in a solid. Phys Rev Lett, 62(21):2535–2538. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.62.2535
Müller CB, Enderlein J, 2010. Image scanning microscopy. Phys Rev Lett, 104(19):198101. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.198101
Nahidiazar L, Agronskaia AV, Broertjes J, et al., 2016. Optimizing imaging conditions for demanding multicolor super resolution localization microscopy. PLoS One, 11(7):e0158884. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158884
Ono A, Kato JI, Kawata S, 2005. Subwavelength optical imaging through a metallic nanorod array. Phys Rev Lett, 95(26):267407. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.267407
Pan L, Park Y, Xiong Y, et al., 2011. Maskless plasmonic lithography at 22 nm resolution. Sci Rep, 1:175. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00175
Parazzoli CG, Greegor RB, Nielsen JA, et al., 2004. Performance of a negative index of refraction lens. Appl Phys Lett, 84(17):3232–3234. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1728304
Patterson G, Davidson M, Manley S, 2010. Superresolution imaging using single-molecule localization. Ann Rev Phys Chem, 61:345–367 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.012809.103444
Pendry JB, Ramakrishna SA, 2002. Near-field lenses in two dimensions. J Phys Condens Matter, 14(36):8463–8479. https://doi.org/10.1088/0953-8984/14/36/306
Pham LM, Le Sage D, Stanwix PL, et al., 2011. Magnetic field imaging with nitrogen-vacancy ensembles. New J Phys, 13:045021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/13/4/045021
Podolskiy VA, Alekseyev LV, Narimanov EE, 2005. Strongly anisotropic media: the THz perspectives of left-handed materials. J Mod Opt, 52(16):2343–2349. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500340500275579
Qin SY, Yin H, Yang CL, et al., 2016. A magnetic protein biocompass. Nat Mater, 15(2):217–226. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat4484
Rai-Choudhury P, 1997. Handbook of Microlithography, Micromachining, and Microfabrication. Vol. 1. Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, UK.
Rankin BR, Moneron G, Wurm CA, et al., 2011. Nanoscopy in a living multicellular organism expressing GFP. Biophys J, 100(12):L63–L65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2011.05.020
Rego EH, Shao L, Macklin JJ, et al., 2012. Nonlinear structured-illumination microscopy with a photo-switchable protein reveals cellular structures at 50-nm resolution. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 109(3):E135–E143. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1107547108
Rho J, Ye ZL, Xiong Y, et al., 2010. Spherical hyperlens for two-dimensional sub-diffractional imaging at visible frequencies. Nat Commun, 1:143. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1148
Rittweger E, Han KY, Irvine SE, et al., 2009a. STED microscopy reveals crystal colour centres with nanometric resolution. Nat Photon, 3(3):144–147. https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2009.2
Rittweger E, Wildanger D, Hell SW, 2009b. Far-field fluorescence nanoscopy of diamond color centers by ground state depletion. Europhys Lett, 86(1):14001. https://doi.org/10.1209/0295-5075/86/14001
Roth S, Sheppard CJR, Wicker K, et al., 2013. Optical photon reassignment microscopy (OPRA). Opt Nanosc, 2:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/2192-2853-2-5
Rust MJ, Bates M, Zhuang XW, 2006. Sub-diffraction-limit imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM). Nat Methods, 3(10):793–796. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth929
Sanamrad A, Persson F, Lundius EG, et al., 2014. Single-particle tracking reveals that free ribosomal subunits are not excluded from th. Escherichia coli nucleoid. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 111(31):11413–11418. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411558111
Schermelleh L, Carlton PM, Haase S, et al., 2008. Subdiffraction multicolor imaging of the nuclear periphery with 3D structured illumination microscopy. Science, 320(5881):1332–1336. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1156947
Schmidt R, Wurm CA, Jakobs S, et al., 2008. Spherical nanosized focal spot unravels the interior of cells. Nat Methods, 5(6):539–544. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1214
Schulz O, Pieper C, Clever M, et al., 2013. Resolution doubling in fluorescence microscopy with confocal spinning-disk image scanning microscopy. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 110(52):21000–21005. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1315858110
Scott TF, Kowalski BA, Sullivan AC, et al., 2009. Two-color single-photon photoinitiation and photoinhibition for subdiffraction photolithography. Science, 324(5929):913–917. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167610
Sednev MV, Belov VN, Hell SW, 2015. Fluorescent dyes with large Stokes shifts for super-resolution optical microscopy of biological objects: a review. Methods Appl Fluoresc, 3(4):042004. https://doi.org/10.1088/2050-6120/3/4/042004
Shao L, Kner P, Rego EH, et al., 2011. Super-resolution 3D microscopy of live whole cells using structured illumination. Nat Methods, 8(12):1044–1046. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1734
Sheppard CJR, 1988. Super-resolution in confocal imaging. Optik, 80(2):53–54.
Sheppard CJR, Mehta SB, Heintzmann R, 2013. Superresolution by image scanning microscopy using pixel reassignment. Opt Lett, 38(15):2889–2892. https://doi.org/10.1364/OL.38.002889
Shroff H, Galbraith CG, Galbraith JA, et al., 2008. Live-cell photoactivated localization microscopy of nanoscale adhesion dynamics. Nat Methods, 5(5):417–423. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1202
Shtengel G, Galbraith JA, Galbraith CG, et al., 2009. Interferometric fluorescent super-resolution microscopy resolves 3D cellular ultrastructure. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 106(9):3125–3130. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0813131106
Shvets G, Trendafilov S, Pendry JB, et al., 2007. Guiding, focusing, and sensing on the subwavelength scale using metallic wire arrays. Phys Rev Lett, 99(5):053903. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.053903
Sidenstein SC, D’Este E, Böhm MJ, et al., 2016. Multicolour multilevel STED nanoscopy of actin/spectrin organization at synapses. Sci Rep, 6:26725. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep26725
Subach FV, Patterson GH, Manley S, et al., 2009. Photoactivatable mCherry for high-resolution two-color fluorescence microscopy. Nat Methods, 6(2):153–159. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.1298
Sun ZJ, Kim HK, 2004. Refractive transmission of light and beam shaping with metallic nano-optic lenses. Appl Phys Lett, 85(4):642. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1776327
Testa I, Wurm CA, Medda R, et al., 2010. Multicolor fluorescence nanoscopy in fixed and living cells by exciting conventional fluorophores with a single wavelength. Biophys J, 99(8):2686–2694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2010.08.012
Tennesen J, Nadrigny F, Willig KI, et al., 2011. Two-color STED microscopy of living synapses using a single laser-beam pair. Biophys J, 101(10):2545–2552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2011.10.011
Tsang M, Psaltis D, 2008. Magnifying perfect lens and superlens design by coordinate transformation. Phys Rev B, 77(3):035122. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.77.035122
Uno SN, Kamiya M, Yoshihara T, et al., 2014. A spontaneously blinking fluorophore based on intramolecular spirocyclization for live-cell super-resolution imaging. Nat Chem, 6(8):681–689. https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.2002
Verslegers L, Catrysse PB, Yu ZF, et al., 2009a. Deep-subwavelength focusing and steering of light in an aperiodic metallic waveguide array. Phys Rev Lett, 103(3):033902. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.033902
Verslegers L, Catrysse PB, Yu ZF, et al., 2009b. Planar lenses based on nanoscale slit arrays in a metallic film. Nano Lett, 9(1):235–238. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl802830y
Vogelsang J, Kasper R, Steinhauer C, et al., 2008. A reducing and oxidizing system minimizes photobleaching and blinking of fluorescent dyes. Angew Chem Int Ed, 47(29):5465–5469. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200801518
Wang ZB, Guo W, Li L, et al., 2011. Optical virtual imaging at 50 nm lateral resolution with a white-light nanoscope. Nat Commun, 2:218. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1211
Westphal V, Hell SW, 2005. Nanoscale resolution in the focal plane of an optical microscope. Phys Rev Lett, 94(14):143903. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.143903
Westphal V, Rizzoli SO, Lauterbach MA, et al., 2008. Video-rate far-field optical nanoscopy dissects synaptic vesicle movement. Science, 320(5873):246–249. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1154228
Wiedenmann J, Ivanchenko S, Oswald F, et al., 2004. EosFP, a fluorescent marker protein with UV-inducible green-to-red fluorescence conversion. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA, 101(45):15905–15910. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0403668101
Willig KI, Harke B, Medda R, et al., 2007. STED microscopy with continuous wave beams. Nat Methods, 4(11):915–918. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth1108
Winter FR, Loidolt M, Westphal V, et al., 2017. Multicolour nanoscopy of fixed and living cells with a single STED beam and hyperspectral detection. Sci Rep, 7:46492. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46492
Xiong Y, Liu ZW, Zhang X, 2009. A simple design of flat hyperlens for lithography and imaging with half-pitch resolution down to 20 nm. Appl Phys Lett, 94(20):203108. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3141457
Xu K, Zhong GS, Zhuang XW, 2013. Actin, spectrin, and associated proteins form a periodic cytoskeletal structure in axons. Science, 339(6118):452–456. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232251
Yang H, Moullan N, Auwerx J, et al., 2014. Super-resolution biological microscopy using virtual imaging by a microsphere nanoscope. Small, 10(9):1712–1718. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201302942
Yang H, Trouillon R, Huszka G, et al., 2016. Super-resolution imaging of a dielectric microsphere is governed by the waist of its photonic nanojet. Nano Lett, 16(8):4862–4870. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01255
Yao J, Liu ZW, Liu YM, et al., 2008. Optical negative refraction in bulk metamaterials of nanowires. Science, 321(5891):930. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1157566
York AG, Parekh SH, Nogare DD, et al., 2012. Resolution doubling in live, multicellular organisms via multifocal structured illumination microscopy. Nat Methods, 9(7):749–754. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2025
York AG, Chandris P, Nogare DD, et al., 2013. Instant super-resolution imaging in live cells and embryos via analog image processing. Nat Methods, 10(11):1122–1126. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2687
Zhang X, Liu ZW, 2008. Superlenses to overcome the diffraction limit. Nat Mater, 7(6):435–441. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2141
Zhao Y, Palikaras G, Belov PA, et al., 2010. Magnification of subwavelength field distributions using a tapered array of metallic wires with planar interfaces and an embedded dielectric phase compensator. New J Phys, 12(10):103045. https://doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/12/10/103045
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Project supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) through the Discovery Project (No. DP170101775)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, Bk., Barbiero, M., Zhang, Qm. et al. Super-resolution optical microscope: principle, instrumentation, and application. Frontiers Inf Technol Electronic Eng 20, 608–630 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1631/FITEE.1800449
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1631/FITEE.1800449