Abstract
Recent developments in chemical synthesis, nanoscale assembly, and molecular-scale measurements enable the extension of the concept of macroscopic machines to the molecular and supramolecular levels. Molecular machines are capable of performing mechanical movements in response to external stimuli. They offer the potential to couple electrical or other forms of energy to mechanical action at the nano- and molecular scales. Working hierarchically and in concert, they can form actuators referred to as artificial muscles, in analogy to biological systems. We describe the principles behind driven motion and assembly at the molecular scale and recent advances in the field of molecular-level electromechanical machines, molecular motors, and artificial muscles. We discuss the challenges and successes in making these assemblies work cooperatively to function at larger scales.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
C. Joachim, J.K. Gimzewski, A. Aviram, Nature 408, 541 (2000).
V. Balzani, A. Credi, F.M. Raymo, J.F. Stoddart, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39, 3349 (2000).
P.S. Weiss, Acc. Chem. Res. 41, 1772 (2008).
R.A. Bissell, E. Cordova, A.E. Kaifer, J.F. Stoddart, Nature 369, 133 (1994).
C.M. Niemeyer, Appl. Phys. A 68, 119 (1999).
M. Gomez-Lopez, J.A. Preece, J.F. Stoddart, Nanotechnology 7, 183 (1996).
A.P. Alivisatos, Science 271, 933 (1996).
D.L. Klein, R. Roth, A.K.L. Lim, A.P. Alivisatos, P.L. McEuen, Nature 389, 699 (1997).
Y. Cui, C.M. Lieber, Science 291, 851 (2001).
X.F. Duan, Y. Huang, Y. Cui, J.F. Wang, C.M. Lieber, Nature 409, 66 (2001).
Y. Huang, X.F. Duan, Y. Cui, L.J. Lauhon, K.H. Kim, C.M. Lieber, Science 294, 1313 (2001).
A. Bachtold, P. Hadley, T. Nakanishi, C. Dekker, Science 294, 1317 (2001).
Y.H. Lee, Y.T. Jang, C.H. Choi, D.H. Kim, C.W. Lee, J.E. Lee, Y.S. Han, S.S. Yoon, J.K. Shin, S.T. Kim, E.K. Kim, B.K. Ju, Adv. Mater. 13, 1371 (2001).
V. Derycke, R. Martel, J. Appenzeller, P. Avouris, Nano Lett. 1, 453 (2001).
C. Dekker, Phys. Today 52, 22 (1999).
S.J. Tans, A.R.M. Verschueren, C. Dekker, Nature 393, 49 (1998).
V. Balzani, A. Credi, M. Venturi, Eds., Molecular Devices and Machines: Concepts and Perspectives for the Nanoworld, Second edition (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2008).
A.M. Elizarov, S.H. Chiu, J.F. Stoddart, J. Org. Chem. 67, 9175 (2002).
T. Ikeda, S. Saha, I. Aprahamian, K.C.F. Leung, A. Williams, W.Q. Deng, A.H. Flood, W.A. Goddard, J.F. Stoddart, Chem. Asian J. 2, 76 (2007).
R. Ballardini, V. Balzani, M.T. Gandolfi, L. Prodi, M. Venturi, D. Philp, H.G. Ricketts, J.F. Stoddart, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 32, 1301 (1993).
S. Saha, J.F. Stoddart, Chem. Soc. Rev. 36, 77 (2007).
A. Credi, M. Venturi, Cent. Eur. J. Chem. 6, 325 (2008).
A.S. Kumar, T. Ye, T. Takami, B.C. Yu, A.K. Flatt, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, Nano Lett. 8, 1644 (2008).
A.P. de Silva, S. Uchiyama, Nat. Nanotechnol. 2, 399 (2007).
B. Yurke, A.J. Turberfield, A.P. Mills, F.C. Simmel, J.L. Neumann, Nature 406, 605 (2000).
B.A. Mantooth, P.S. Weiss, Proc. IEEE 91, 1785 (2003).
A.M. Moore, P.S. Weiss, Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1, 857 (2008).
C. Joachim, M.A. Ratner, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 8801 (2005).
D.J. Fuchs, P.S. Weiss, Nanotechnology 18, 044021 (2007).
T.D. Dunbar, M.T. Cygan, L.A. Bumm, G.S. McCarty, T.P. Burgin, W.A. Reinerth, L. Jones, J.J. Jackiw, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, D.L. Allara, J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 4880 (2000).
L.A. Bumm, J.J. Arnold, M.T. Cygan, T.D. Dunbar, T.P. Burgin, L. Jones, D.L. Allara, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, Science 271, 1705 (1996).
J.M. Seminario, A.G. Zacarias, J.M. Tour, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 3015 (2000).
J.M. Seminario, C.E. De la Cruz, P.A. Derosa, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 5616 (2001).
J.M. Seminario, A.G. Zacarias, J.M. Tour, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 3970 (1998).
J.M. Tour, Chem. Rev. 96, 537 (1996).
M. Di Ventra, S.G. Kim, S.T. Pantelides, N.D. Lang, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 288 (2001).
L.A. Bumm, J.J. Arnold, L.F. Charles, T.D. Dunbar, D.L. Allara, P.S. Weiss, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 8017 (1999).
R.K. Smith, P.A. Lewis, P.S. Weiss, Prog. Surf. Sci. 75, 1 (2004).
Z.J. Donhauser, B.A. Mantooth, K.F. Kelly, L.A. Bumm, J.D. Monnell, J.J. Stapleton, D.W. Price, A.M. Rawlett, D.L. Allara, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, Science 292, 2303 (2001).
M.T. Cygan, T.D. Dunbar, J.J. Arnold, L.A. Bumm, N.F. Shedlock, T.P. Burgin, L. Jones, D.L. Allara, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 2721 (1998).
M. Weck, J.J. Jackiw, R.R. Rossi, P.S. Weiss, R.H. Grubbs, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 4088 (1999).
A.M. Moore, B.A. Mantooth, A.A. Dameron, Z.J. Donhauser, P.A. Lewis, R.K. Smith, D.J. Fuchs, P.S. Weiss, Adv. Mater. Res. 10, 29 (2008).
P.A. Lewis, C.E. Inman, Y.X. Yao, J.M. Tour, J.E. Hutchison, P.S. Weiss, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 12214 (2004).
T.J. Mullen, C. Srinivasan, J.N. Hohman, S.D. Gillmor, M.J. Shuster, M.W. Horn, A.M. Andrews, P.S. Weiss, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 063114 (2007).
T.J. Mullen, A.A. Dameron, A.M. Andrews, P.S. Weiss, Aldrichim. Acta 40, 21 (2007).
L.A. Bumm, J.J. Arnold, T.D. Dunbar, D.L. Allara, P.S. Weiss, J. Phys. Chem. B 103, 8122 (1999).
X.D. Cui, A. Primak, X. Zarate, J. Tomfohr, O.F. Sankey, A.L. Moore, T.A. Moore, D. Gust, G. Harris, S.M. Lindsay, Science 294, 571 (2001).
A.M. Moore, B.A. Mantooth, Z.J. Donhauser, F. Maya, D.W. Price, Y.X. Yao, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, Nano Lett. 5, 2292 (2005).
J.M. Tour, Acc. Chem. Res. 33, 791 (2000).
J.M. Tour, A.M. Rawlett, M. Kozaki, Y.X. Yao, R.C. Jagessar, S.M. Dirk, D.W. Price, M.A. Reed, C.W. Zhou, J. Chen, W.Y. Wang, I. Campbell, Chem. Eur. J. 7, 5118 (2001).
P.A. Lewis, C.E. Inman, F. Maya, J.M. Tour, J.E. Hutchison, P.S. Weiss, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 17421 (2005).
M. Magoga, C. Joachim, Phys. Rev. B 56, 4722 (1997).
P.A. Derosa, J.M. Seminario, J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 471 (2001).
P.A. Lewis, Z.J. Donhauser, B.A. Mantooth, R.K. Smith, L.A. Bumm, K.F. Kelly, P.S. Weiss, Nanotechnology 12, 231 (2001).
A.M. Moore, A.A. Dameron, B.A. Mantooth, R.K. Smith, D.J. Fuchs, J.W. Ciszek, F. Maya, Y.X. Yao, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 1959 (2006).
A.A. Dameron, J.W. Ciszek, J.M. Tour, P.S. Weiss, J. Phys. Chem. B 108, 16761 (2004).
J.F. Stoddart, H.R. Tseng, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99, 4797 (2002).
K.E. Griffiths, J.F. Stoddart, Pure Appl. Chem. 80, 485 (2008).
F. Diederich, P.J. Stang, Eds., Templated Organic Synthesis. (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1999).
T.D. Nguyen, H.R. Tseng, P.C. Celestre, A.H. Flood, Y. Liu, J.F. Stoddart, J.I. Zink, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 10029 (2005).
T.D. Nguyen, Y. Liu, S. Saha, K.C.F. Leung, J.F. Stoddart, J.I. Zink, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129, 626 (2007).
T.D. Nguyen, K.C.-F. Leung, M. Liong, C.D. Pentecost, J.F. Stoddart, J.I. Zink, Org. Lett. 8, 3363 (2006).
S. Saha, K.C.-F. Leung, T.D. Nguyen, J.F. Stoddart, J.I. Zink, Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 685 (2007).
S. Angelos, E. Johansson, J.F. Stoddart, J.I. Zink, Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 2261 (2007).
S. Angelos, Y.-W. Yang, K. Patel, J.F. Stoddart, J.I. Zink, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47, 2222 (2008).
K. Patel, S. Angelos, W.R. Dichtel, A. Coskun, Y.-W. Yang, J.I. Zink, J.F. Stoddart, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 2382 (2008).
D.W. Steuerman, H.R. Tseng, A.J. Peters, A.H. Flood, J.O. Jeppesen, K.A. Nielsen, J.F. Stoddart, J.R. Heath, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43, 6486 (2004).
I. Aprahamian, T. Yasuda, T. Ikeda, S. Saha, W.R. Dichtel, K. Isoda, T. Kato, J.F. Stoddart, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 46, 4675 (2007).
W.Q. Deng, A.H. Flood, J.F. Stoddart, W.A. Goddard, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 15994 (2005).
T. Ikeda, I. Aprahamian, J.F. Stoddart, Org. Lett. 9, 1481 (2007).
J.E. Green, J.W. Choi, A. Boukai, Y. Bunimovich, E. Johnston-Halperin, E. DeIonno, Y. Luo, B.A. Sheriff, K. Xu, Y.S. Shin, H.-R. Tseng, J.F. Stoddart, J.R. Heath, Nature 445, 414 (2007).
W.R. Dichtel, J.R. Heath, J.F. Stoddart, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 365, 1607 (2007).
A.H. Flood, R.J.A. Ramirez, W.Q. Deng, R.P. Muller, W.A. Goddard, J.F. Stoddart, Aust. J. Chem. 57, 301 (2004).
A.H. Flood, J.F. Stoddart, D.W. Steuerman, J.R. Heath, Science 306, 2055 (2004).
S.S. Jang, Y.H. Jang, Y.H. Kim, W.A. Goddard, J.W. Choi, J.R. Heath, B.W. Laursen, A.H. Flood, J.F. Stoddart, K. Norgaard, T. Bjornholm, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 14804 (2005).
Y. Luo, C.P. Collier, J.O. Jeppesen, K.A. Nielsen, E. DeIonno, G. Ho, J. Perkins, H.R. Tseng, T. Yamamoto, J.F. Stoddart, J.R. Heath, ChemPhysChem 3, 519 (2002).
A.R. Pease, J.O. Jeppesen, J.F. Stoddart, Y. Luo, C.P. Collier, J.R. Heath, Acc. Chem. Res. 34, 433 (2001).
H.R. Tseng, S.A. Vignon, P.C. Celestre, J. Perkins, J.O. Jeppesen, A. Di Fabio, R. Ballardini, M.T. Gandolfi, M. Venturi, V. Balzani, J.F. Stoddart, Chem. Eur. J. 10, 155 (2004).
P.R. Ashton, R. Ballardini, V. Balzani, I. Baxter, A. Credi, M.C.T. Fyfe, M.T. Gandolfi, M. Gomez-Lopez, M.V. Martinez-Diaz, A. Piersanti, N. Spencer, J.F. Stoddart, M. Venturi, A.J.P. White, D.J. Williams, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 11932 (1998).
J.D. Badjic, V. Balzani, A. Credi, S. Silvi, J.F. Stoddart, Science 303, 1845 (2004).
J.D. Badjic, C.M. Ronconi, J.F. Stoddart, V. Balzani, S. Silvi, A. Credi, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 1489 (2006).
A.S. Lane, D.A. Leigh, A. Murphy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 11092 (1997).
T.J. Huang, MRS Bull. 33, 226 (2008).
R. Ballardini, V. Balzani, J. Becher, A. Di Fabio, M.T. Gandolfi, G. Mattersteig, M.B. Nielsen, F.M. Raymo, S.J. Rowan, J.F. Stoddart, A.J.P. White, D.J. Williams, J. Org. Chem. 65, 4120 (2000).
V. Bermudez, N. Capron, T. Gase, F.G. Gatti, F. Kajzar, D.A. Leigh, F. Zerbetto, S.W. Zhang, Nature 406, 608 (2000).
J.P. Collin, P. Gavina, J.P. Sauvage, New J. Chem. 21, 525 (1997).
S. Nygaard, K.C.F. Leung, I. Aprahamian, T. Ikeda, S. Saha, B.W. Laursen, S.Y. Kim, S.W. Hansen, P.C. Stein, A.H. Flood, J.F. Stoddart, J.O. Jeppesen, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129, 960 (2007).
Y.B. Zheng, Y.W. Yang, L. Jensen, L. Fang, B.K. Juluri, A.H. Flood, P.S. Weiss, J.F. Stoddart, T.J. Huang, Nano Lett. 9, 819 (2009).
A. Altieri, G. Bottari, F. Dehez, D.A. Leigh, J.K.Y. Wong, F. Zerbetto, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42, 2296 (2003).
P.R. Ashton, R. Ballardini, V. Balzani, A. Credi, K.R. Dress, E. Ishow, C.J. Kleverlaan, O. Kocian, J.A. Preece, N. Spencer, J.F. Stoddart, M. Venturi, S. Wenger, Chem. Eur. J. 6, 3558 (2000).
F.G. Gatti, S. Lent, J.K.Y. Wong, G. Bottari, A. Altieri, M.A.F. Morales, S.J. Teat, C. Frochot, D.A. Leigh, A.M. Brouwer, F. Zerbetto, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 10 (2003).
A.M. Brouwer, C. Frochot, F.G. Gatti, D.A. Leigh, L. Mottier, F. Paolucci, S. Roffia, G.W.H. Wurpel, Science 291, 2124 (2001).
T.J. Huang, B. Brough, C.M. Ho, Y. Liu, A.H. Flood, P.A. Bonvallet, H.R. Tseng, J.F. Stoddart, M. Baller, S. Magonov, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5391 (2004).
Y. Liu, A.H. Flood, P.A. Bonvallett, S.A. Vignon, B.H. Northrop, H.R. Tseng, J.O. Jeppesen, T.J. Huang, B. Brough, M. Baller, S. Magonov, S.D. Solares, W.A. Goddard, C.M. Ho, J.F. Stoddart, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 9745 (2005).
B.K. Juluri, A.S. Kumar, Y. Liu, T. Ye, Y.W. Yang, A.H. Flood, L. Fang, J.F. Stoddart, P.S. Weiss, T.J. Huang, ACS Nano 3, 291 (2009).
P.R. Ashton, I.W. Parsons, F.M. Raymo, J.F. Stoddart, A.J.P. White, D.J. Williams, R. Wolf, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37, 1913 (1998).
J.S. Wu, K.C.F. Leung, D. Benitez, J.Y. Han, S.J. Cantrill, L. Fang, J.F. Stoddart, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47, 7470 (2008).
J.W. Choi, A.H. Flood, D.W. Steuerman, S. Nygaard, A.B. Braunschweig, N.N.P. Moonen, B.W. Laursen, Y. Luo, E. DeIonno, A.J. Peters, J.O. Jeppesen, K. Xu, J.F. Stoddart, J.R. Heath, Chem. Eur. J. 12, 261 (2006).
T.J. Huang, A.H. Flood, B. Brough, Y. Liu, P.A. Bonvallet, S.S. Kang, C.W. Chu, T.F. Guo, W.X. Lu, Y. Yang, J.F. Stoddart, C.M. Ho, IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng. 3, 254 (2006).
W.Y. Zhang, W.R. Dichtel, A.Z. Stieg, D. Ben’tez, J.K. Gimzewski, J.R. Heath, J.F. Stoddart, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 6514 (2008).
P. Kim, C.M. Lieber, Science 286, 2148 (1999).
T. Rueckes, K. Kim, E. Joselevich, G.Y. Tseng, C.L. Cheung, C.M. Lieber, Science 289, 94 (2000).
V.V. Deshpande, H.Y. Chiu, H.W.C. Postma, C. Miko, L. Forro, M. Bockrath, Nano Lett. 6, 1092 (2006).
R.H. Baughman, C.X. Cui, A.A. Zakhidov, Z. Iqbal, J.N. Barisci, G.M. Spinks, G.G. Wallace, A. Mazzoldi, D. De Rossi, A.G. Rinzler, O. Jaschinski, S. Roth, M. Kertesz, Science 284, 1340 (1999).
U. Vohrer, I. Kolaric, M.H. Haque, S. Roth, U. Detlaff-Weglikowska, Carbon 42, 1159 (2004).
S. Gupta, M. Hughes, A.H. Windle, J. Robertson, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 2038 (2004).
J.D.W. Madden, J.N. Barisci, P.A. Anquetil, G.M. Spinks, G.G. Wallace, R.H. Baughman, I.W. Hunter, Adv. Mater. 18, 870 (2006).
T. Mirfakhrai, J. Oh, M. Kozlov, E.C.W. Fok, M. Zhang, S. Fang, R.H. Baughman, J.D.W. Madden, Smart Mater. Struct. 16, S243 (2007).
Y. Yun, V. Shanov, Y. Tu, M.J. Schulz, S. Yarmolenko, S. Neralla, J. Sankar, S. Subramaniam, Nano Lett. 6, 689 (2006).
L.T. Qu, Q. Peng, L.M. Dai, G.M. Spinks, G.G. Wallace, R.H. Baughman, MRS Bull. 33, 215 (2008).
T. Mirfakhrai, J.D.W. Madden, R.H. Baughman, Mater. Today 10, 30 (2007).
V.H. Ebron, Z.W. Yang, D.J. Seyer, M.E. Kozlov, J.Y. Oh, H. Xie, J. Razal, L.J. Hall, J.P. Ferraris, A.G. MacDiarmid, R.H. Baughman, Science 311, 1580 (2006).
J.D. Madden, Science 318, 1094 (2007).
G.M. Spinks, G.G. Wallace, L.S. Fifield, L.R. Dalton, A. Mazzoldi, D. De Rossi, I.I. Khayrullin, R.H. Baughman, Adv. Mater. 14, 1728 (2002).
S.V. Ahir, E.M. Terentjev, Nat. Mater. 4, 491 (2005).
H. Koerner, G. Price, N.A. Pearce, M. Alexander, R.A. Vaia, Nat. Mater. 3, 115 (2004).
P. Miaudet, A. Derre, M. Maugey, C. Zakri, P.M. Piccione, R. Inoubli, P. Poulin, Science 318, 1294 (2007).
S. Courty, J. Mine, A.R. Tajbakhsh, E.M. Terentjev, Europhys. Lett. 64, 654 (2003).
S.G. Louie, Top. Appl. Phys. 80, 113 (2001).
B. Vigolo, A. Penicaud, C. Coulon, C. Sauder, R. Pailler, C. Journet, P. Bernier, P. Poulin, Science 290, 1331 (2000).
M. Zhang, K.R. Atkinson, R.H. Baughman, Science 306, 1358 (2004).
M. Zhang, S.L. Fang, A.A. Zakhidov, S.B. Lee, A.E. Aliev, C.D. Williams, K.R. Atkinson, R.H. Baughman, Science 309, 1215 (2005).
Y.L. Li, I.A. Kinloch, A.H. Windle, Science 304, 276 (2004).
A.B. Dalton, S. Collins, E. Munoz, J.M. Razal, V.H. Ebron, J.P. Ferraris, J.N. Coleman, B.G. Kim, R.H. Baughman, Nature 423, 703 (2003).
L.M. Ericson, H. Fan, H.Q. Peng, V.A. Davis, W. Zhou, J. Sulpizio, Y.H. Wang, R. Booker, J. Vavro, C. Guthy, A.N.G. Parra-Vasquez, M.J. Kim, S. Ramesh, R.K. Saini, C. Kittrell, G. Lavin, H. Schmidt, W.W. Adams, W.E. Billups, M. Pasquali, W.F. Hwang, R.H. Hauge, J.E. Fischer, R.E. Smalley, Science 305, 1447 (2004).
R.H. Baughman, A.A. Zakhidov, W.A. de Heer, Science 297, 787 (2002).
R.H. Baughman, Synth. Met. 78, 339 (1996).
R.H. Baughman, L.W. Shacklette, R.L. Eisenbaumer, E.J. Plichta, C. Becht in Conjugated Polymeric Materials: Opportunities in Electronics, Optoelectronics, and Molecular Electronics. J.L. Brédas, R.R. Chance, Eds. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1990), pp. 559–582.
J.D.W. Madden, N.A. Vandesteeg, P.A. Anquetil, P.G.A. Madden, A. Takshi, R.Z. Pytel, S.R. Lafontaine, P.A. Wieringa, I.W. Hunter, IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. 29, 706 (2004).
A.E. Aliev, J. Oh, M.E. Kozlov, A.A. Kuznetsov, S. Fang, A.F. Fonseca, R. Ovalle, M.D. Lima, M.H. Haque, Y.N. Gartstein, M. Zhang, A.A. Zakhidov, R.H. Baughman, Science 323, 1575 (2009).
G.Y. Sun, J. Kurti, M. Kertesz, R.H. Baughman, J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 6924 (2003).
Y.N. Gartstein, A.A. Zakhidov, R.H. Baughman, Phys. Rev. B 68 (2003).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, D., Paxton, W.F., Baughman, R.H. et al. Molecular, Supramolecular, and Macromolecular Motors and Artificial Muscles. MRS Bulletin 34, 671–681 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs2009.179
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1557/mrs2009.179