Rumour Text Constructing Techniques In Media Discourse: Case Study Of Gossip Columns

Defining the notion of gossip and rumours

Belonging to a vast range of informal pathways of communication, gossip and rumours have been a target of research in different fields of humanities for about a hundred years and become the subject of discussion in contemporary discourse studies. The history of studying these phenomena is marked by suggesting a large number of their definitions and making efforts to distinguish them with respect to a variety of factors depending on the scientific school and approach. Our analysis of their representation in language shows their “family resemblance” and no conceptual differences between them, gossip being a more restricted type, a subspecies of rumour communicating information on individuals and their conduct, but the rumour propagating information of broader significance. It is proved by the existence of borderline types, hybrid forms demonstrating features of both gossip and rumour like celebrity gossip (this view point can also be found in (Gelfert, 2012, pp. 770-771; Guerin & Miyazaki, 2006, pp. 28-29)).

As the concept of rumour represents a complex cognitive construct, for the purpose of the present analysis we place emphasis on its two invariant features: its unconfirmed information status (lack of evidence) but perceived as the reliable, trustworthy one.

Genre features of gossip columns: general information

From the perspective of linguistics gossip is traditionally referred to the category of verbal phatic genres. Gossip columns can be treated as a hybrid form combining the features of informal verbal interpersonal communication and that of formal mass media discourse.

Taking into account the model of textuality based on invariant textual categories suggested by Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), we focus on the textforming categories of cohesion, informativeness and intentionality displayed on the text surface level, for the text deep layers requiring additional efforts and more detailed account. In addition, we focus on the synchronical aspect of the texts under study, though noting rather long history of the genre development filled with changes in the topical preferences and stylistic organisation as well as and ideological accent transformations of the celebrity gossip text type.

In the framework of medialinguistics developed by Dobrosklonskaya (2013), the functional aspect is considered to be the most important one stipulating the text intentional hierarchy to be the point of departure in our reasoning. We assume that by their nature on-line gossip columns trace all the textual characteristics essential for any media texts but possess specific, inherent features influenced by their multiintentional nature. The latter is determined by two factors: the first being bound to the discursive characteristics of the tabloid gossip and yellow journalism depending on the medial format and affected by the spirit of hedonism; the second one being connected with the study of the space of rumors and complicated by the dialectical interaction of such categories as “truth” and “fiction” or “rumor” and “fact”.

The lexical aspect of rumour constructing techniques in the texts of gossip columns

The lexical resources of the language are traditionally regarded as means of the surface level of text formation. The analysis shows the ambitendency of choosing the lexical resources due to the ambiguity of intentions (to inform entertaining). On the one hand, these texts tend to employ the lexical repertoire typical of the group of mass media news. On the other hand, there are language peculiarities belonging to the genre of celebrity gossip exclusively.

In the texts of newsmaking discursive practices journalistic skills such as verifying facts and checking sources are valued the most. As a result, to increase the verification potential of the information imparted journalists resort to lexical-semantic units stressing testimonial, impersonal, documental quality of the information. These means are closely related to the language category of evidentiality codifying the source of information opened by scholars in recent past and being one of the disputable language categories at present (See more about the problem of evidentiality in (Aikhenvald, 2004; Willet, 1988)). According to our analysis, among the language units most frequently used are deictic words of evidentiality and epistemic modality. The latter is considered to define the degree of trust and reliability of propositions presented, though its status is still being discussed. The first category of lexical means denote displaying indirect evidence: 1) reportage verbs (introductive predicates) like say, tell, inform, report, quote, confirm, assert, admit , 2) journalistic clichés: according to, per the report. In addition, there is a steady presence of the number of lexico-semantic resources belonging to the genre of celebrity gossip. The second group of text invariant is composed of rumour evidential markers (presenting indirect evidence) conducting the modality of indefinitiveness (uncertainty) and presented by multi-level means of the English language:

• linking set-expressions, predicative units, word-combinations, and phraseological units based on metaphors verbalizing the concept of rumour: the word (rumour, legend) has it, it is rumoured, based on a handful of tabloid rumors, there have been rumors/theories, rumours suggest/surface, the rumor grew legs quickly, spark rumors (buzz), according to reports/rumours, set tongues wagging, fuel speculations, swirling speculations/allegations, tabloid rumor mill, a complete fabrication, filled with the kind of gossip and scandal, the buzz predict;

• lexical units, indicating unauthorized, anonymous, non-referential source of information delivered that determines its unverified, unproved, unsubstantiated quality, of which the most frequently used are as follows: an insider, a (anonymous) source(s) (for, close to, familiar with), a pal, a spy, a rep, am informant, a member of the team, a close friend, a certain man, some folk, a snitch, a resident (of), unclear origin, allegedly, apparently, reportedly, allegation, speculation, assumption, report, claim, speculate, appear, suggest, allege, hint, be quoted as saying.

The second group of the prototype lexical elements in the discursive practices under investigation are related to the dominant feature of the media rumours about celebrities: sensationalism and rapidness of presenting information. The core of their scope consists of the nominations, attributive and phraseological units explicating the concepts of sensation and scandal or comprising the semes of sensationalism or scandalousness: scandal, sensation, brouhaha - a noisy stir or wrangle; hubbub; uproar; commotion , rumblings, bombshell - something which arouses great interest or excitement; sensation, killer - slang , an extremely successful, impressive, exciting, etc. person or thing, surprise, scandalous affair, juicy info, hot/stunning news, the newest rumor, latest scandalous gossip/saga, exclusive - adjective noun , an exclusive is an exclusive article or report, hot - adjective noun , [journalism], a hot issue or topic is one that is very important at the present time and is receiving a lot of publicity, breaking news, the hype, dynamite (Collins English dictionary, 2019); If you describe a piece of information as dynamite, you think that people will react strongly to it (Collins English dictionary, 2019), be embroiled in scandals and controversy, consume minds with curiosity, grab/make headlines, go viral, hit the press/the news, keep tabloids in business, become tabloid fodder, follow hot on the heels of the story, have a field day (of the press), stun. This lexical repertoire can be considered as a powerful resource of persuasion in terms of emotional impact it has on the addressee of the investigated text representations.

The third constituent of lexical level inherent to the gossip column text type is connected with the topical organisation of informational flow. It is represented by lexical clichés with usual meaning and evaluative predicates relating to topics consistent with the coverage of celebrosphere items, like social aspects and private conduct, or personal life of celebrities: A-list star/celebrities/duo, (Hollywood) A-lister, famed pop singer, stunning entertainer, famed songstress - Journalists sometimes refer to a female popular singer as a songstress (Collins English dictionary, 2019), socialite, huge icon of music, acceptance speech, publicity stunt, baby bump - informal , visible signs of pregnancy, noticeable abdominal swelling in a pregnant woman. Usage notes: Frequently used in tabloid coverage of celebrities (English Wiktionary, 2019), be/stay in the spotlight, shoot to stardom, a secret love child, boy toy, an old lover, celeb love rumor, celebrity romance, whirlwind romance, celeb love duo, amorous couple, Hollywood’s golden couple, high-profile divorce/split, political scandal, cheating scandal, affair allegation, divorce scandal, sex scandal, sexual assault, abuse scandal, sexual misconduct/misdeed, exchange some PDA, be an item, tie the knot, welcome a baby, tangle up in a feud, keep a low profile. As it can be seen, the dominant topoi of the media rumours are based on the large scale of intrusion on privacy of celebrities including items of fertility, sexual and misbehaviour practices.

The morphological-syntactic level of media rumours

This level is related to the syntagmatic relations of lexis and is marked by the frequency of multiple-element lexical combinations specific for informational mass media genres. In the studied texts they are used on the basis of developing thematic content specific to celebrity gossip. They are as follows:

• unsteady type compound words, i.e. occasional multicomponents like the too-crazy-to-be-true story, the long-in-the-tooth tale, former actress-turned-duchess, the child-actor-turned-metal-band-singer, the recession-era property-porn documentary, year-long romance with an as-yet-unidentified man, she-who-shall-not-be-named, a former-model-turned-reality-TV-show-star's arm candy, nine-months-pregnant star, headline-grabbing divorce;

• multicomponent attributive word combinations:

the 27-year-old NBA star’s first baby mama, suspicious-looking white powder, the alleged purse-snatching victim, then-notorious Hollywood bad boy, spotted Hiddleston-less, a devastating mystery illness, short-lived relationship, over-the-top-wedding, "locker room" style conversation, a Scottish-born musician, a long-term girlfriend, a former adult-film star, father-daughter relationship, the 82-year-old veteran broadcaster, the fellow female pop star, an LAPD public information officer, internet-operated sex trafficking.

Besides, among distinguishing features of the language of the texts described is a large scope of words denoting the cultural “realia” of Anglophone countries, i.e. words containing background information including nominations of different precedent phenomena denoting British or American cultural concepts or concerning private life and professional activities of rumour “targets”, in particular personal names, titles of films, songs, musical albums, contests, etc. Special interest is aroused by their involvement into the structure of multicomponent combinations representing periphrases on the basis of the stylistic device of allusion. The latter has a high profile in the semantic organisation of the texts and lack of its understanding makes impossible appropriate text interpretation. They can be illustrated by the following examples: Trump's right-hand woman, the Oscar-worthy film, the Oscar-winning star, the two-time Grammy winner, the Formula One star, the Shake It Off singer, the 35-year-old Night Manager star, the “212” rapper, the Best Man actress, Victoria Secret model, L’Oreal stunner, Super Bowl performance, 2014 Rolling Stone cover story, Golden Globe speech, “Girls Trip” breakout star, a former America's Next Top Model contestant, the Poker Face hitmaker, the Raging Bull actor, the Hips Don’t Lie singer, the little bundle of waka-waka. This cultural markedness on the lexical level reveals the reference of these texts to other cultural texts and phenomena, and characterises this text type as the one recorded by high degree of intertextuality, specific cultural meanings being referred to the deep layer of their semantics.

Rumour constructing techniques at the textual level

In the case of gossip and rumours we don’t strongly need the testimony (evidence) (on the philosophical point of testimony, see (Gelfert, 2012, 2014, 2018)) of others. In the case of journalist texts providing news testimony is a crucial point of the information delivered to the mass dissipative addressee. Indeed, this is why in the case of gossip columns journalists use a large number of evidential tools belonging to the textual level pursuing two goals: (1) to link separate semantic segments of the texts for linguistic reasons, and (2) to increase the credibility of the rumour disseminated for psychological reasons. These key elements include numerous references to the sources of information, citations, and interview fragments represented in a wide scale of citations in the various forms of direct speech, indirect speech, separate phrases being put quotes around. Typically, the authors of citations are directly rumour “targets”, insiders, various experts and other “well-informed sources”. Such citations and references appeal to indicate some kind of investigation and checking by the journalist, but in fact fail to provide truthful facts. The other fact that attracts attention is that references are often made in the form of cross-referencing (references to other outlets), for media being apparently manifested as sources of testimonial beliefs playing a central role in our epistemic life.

Often gossip column texts get overloaded with the evidential markers, as in the following example of the story from the sex scandal narrative on Larry King’s wife alleged affair found in the Page Six :

EXCLUSIVE Meet the man allegedly having an affair with Larry King’s wife

The man who’s been carrying on an alleged yearlong affair with Larry King’s wife, Shawn King, is a public-speaking guru whose clients have included US senators, Arianna Huffington, Princess Diana, Naomi Campbell, and Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith, according to a source close to the King family .

Richard Greene - dubbed “the master of charisma” by the Sunday Times of London , and whose website lists the aforementioned stars as customers - has also appeared as a talking head on endless TV news reports. And the National Enquirer - which broke the story of the affair, but didn’t name Greene - claims that Shawn is trying to groom him as “the next Larry King.”

Attorneys representing Shawn and Larry, as well as a rep for Greene, called the story of the affair “inaccurate.”

Meanwhile, insiders tell Page Six that Larry, 82, was blindsided by the revelation of the alleged tryst.

Sources say that Larry believed his wife of 19 years was faithful to him and only learned about her romance with Greene when the Enquirer contacted his reps for comment.

Shockingly, an insider told us that Shawn, 56, met Greene when he was a guest on a podcast she co-hosts with her husband, “Back and Forth With Shawn and Larry.”

“He’s heartbroken,” a friend of Larry’s told us. “He’s embarrassed and furious.”

The source added that although Shawn - who the Enquirer reported on Wednesday had sent nude pictures and had “steamy afternoon sex sessions” with her boy toy - is still living with Larry after the news hit, the veteran broadcaster hasn’t made a decision on whether to file for divorce.

In fact, the insider said that before the scandal broke, Shawn “was ready to divorce Larry for this guy, but the guy was hesitant about it.”

The insider further revealed that Shawn and Larry’s marriage has effectively been over since about 2010 and that the couple sleep in separate rooms in their Beverly Hills, Calif., home. (Coleman, 2016)

The whole body of the text is exclusively composed of testimonial propositions and contains all types of evidential elements mentioned above, and thus can be interpreted as a variant possessing all the prototype features of celebrity gossip representations.

Besides, it is important to note that the same segments of citations are being exported from one text to the next. This results in the jungle telegraph or grape-vine effect inherent to the verbal rumour channel. In other words, the plethora of cross-references and cross-quotations creates the impression of “hearsay" or in-chain-order way of producing information. And in this sense, indeed, media construct their own reality that was suggested by Luhmann (2000). It seems that by means of multiplication the fable is easily transformed into the fact for the reason that in the process of cascading the content of the message remains but not the modality of uncertainty as in the case of verbal (“word of mouth”) rumours described by Dubois, Rucker, and Tormala (2011).

The example of Brangelina saga presentating events concerning the divorce of the former couple in different outlets demonstrates how media transform any news into the chain of events through stovepiping, and information looms large taking the form of endless narratives.

The wide range of evidential elements has been enriched with the integration of newsmaking with social media. These last few years in journalism studies scholars have argued that the new pervasive tendency in contemporary mass media may lead to an erosion of the canonic journalist principles of verifying facts and checking sources for the very disputable extent of testimonial trustworthiness of accounts of events provided by the public. The case of celebrity gossip proves that this strategy helps to make a fact out of a factoid.

Typical of this, the following is found in the Page Six story:

Azealia Banks says she was roofied and raped

In a since deleted Instagram story, the troubled star simply wrote, “Lowkey just got raped. I feel like dirt” (Taylor, 2018).

For the most part the factual foundation of the text is constructed on the personal Instagram story. The quality of the authentic information appears to be quite doubtful. We find here very little evidence of actual verification and lack of contextual information:

It’s unclear if the “212” rapper filed a police report. She did not name her accuser in her Instagram story (Taylor, 2018).

The only effort to improve the accuracy of information in the statement at the end of the text totally discredits the previous information provided:

A request for comment from Banks’ publicist and team wasn’t immediately returned (Taylor, 2018).

As some scholars have suggested such questions about the changing nature of news and alignment of news sourcing with social media “may require that we rethink our model of news production and, it would seem here, that this should include the way that we attribute ideology” (Bouvier, 2017, p. 16). The latter is true for the media discursive practises generating rumours, in particular, for they have transformed into one of the popular sources of obtaining information about the “luxurious, wonderful, attractive” life of celebrities (as it seems to be) for rank-and-file people. The information conducting different sides of the celebrity culture (way of life, way of thinking, behaviour patterns, food, clothes preferences, etc.) is definitely to assume a prescriptive nature and, thus, make the texts of this kind a forceful tool of representing the views of elites, the powerful and naturalizing dominant ideologies.

At last, one more tendency is felt strong in the framework of celebrity gossip texts, namely, introducing the means of investigative feature genre. They are marked with making full use of linguistic means of epistemic modality of certainty displaying the persuasive potential of the texts by implying the validity and, thus, high extent of trustworthiness of the presented information. First of all, this strategy is realised in the headlines and annotation lines considered to be the strong positions of the texts. The following range of elements represents the bright illustration of this:

The real reason Taylor Swift and Tom Hiddleston split;

Things you didn't know about Donald Trump's wife;

The untold truth of Thomas and Ashley on Southern Charm;

What you don't know about Magic Johnson's son EJ;

Lies about Leonardo DiCaprio that people believed;

Celebrity Siblings That You Hardly Hear About ;

Top 10 Celebrities With Secret Love Children;

Busted : Top 15 Celebrities With The Longest Criminal Record;

What Really Happened The Night George Michael Died?;

What's really going on with Tamron Hall;

Hailey Baldwin and Justin Bieber: The PROOF They're Back Together!

Who bit Beyonce? The mystery is finally solved.

In fact, the epistemic language markers are widely used as means of manipulation realising the function of persuasion in the texts. These resources include a wide part-of-speech range and different types of word combinability intensified by emotional-expressive means of language with attitudinal meaning which can be illustrated by the following:

the shady/ugly truth about/behind, the untold truth of, the revelation of, the real reason, the inside dope, the straight dope, dirty laundry, the mystery/ secret revealed/solved, the reveal confirmed, small details you missed, the details leaked, things you didn't know about, the biggest head-scratcher, the complete story, confirmed with (a kiss), (actual) evidence (to support claims), inside, reveal, identify, find out, open up, speak out, dish, expose, lay bare, unpack, shed (throw) light on, spill the beans, get validation, be (follow) hot on sb's heels, why smth happened, break a story/scandal; some undisclosed event, unclear situation, unknown facts, supposed/mystery woman/man.

The hypertrophic extent of certain modality that these means are marked by appears to lay stress on the sensational, exclusive character of the imparted information pretending to the status of verified, reliable knowledge.

In sum, displaying all the described features such texts reveal a ritualistic character of verification and checking by the journalist in the process of generating rumours in the celebrosphere.