Abstract
This paper claims that crosslinguistic tendencies of number marking asymmetries can be explained with reference to usage frequency: The kinds of nouns which, across languages, tend to show singulative coding (with special marking of the uniplex member of a pair), rather than the more usual plurative coding (with special marking of the multiplex member), are also the kinds of nouns which tend to occur more frequently in multiplex use. We provide crosslinguistic coding evidence from a range of languages from different families and areas, and crosslinguistic corpus evidence from five languages, using large written corpora. Thus, the crosslinguistic pattern of singulative vs. plurative coding is a special instance of the tendency to devote more marking to rarer forms, and can be explained by the grammatical form-frequency correspondence principle.
Appendix: Frequencies of the 18 + 18 nouns in each of the five languages
(Estonian, Norwegian, Latvian, Russian, English; pmw=per million words)
lang | type | concept | sg form | pl form | sg count | pl count | total (sg+pl) pmw | asymmetry index |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EST | bodyparts | LEG | jalg | jalad | 4528 | 8561 | 60.34 | 0.471 |
EST | bodyparts | LUNG | kops | kopsud | 179 | 435 | 2.83 | 0.589 |
EST | bodyparts | EAR | kõrv | kõrvad | 719 | 1609 | 10.73 | 0.553 |
EST | pairitems | SHOE | king | kingad | 1052 | 1793 | 13.12 | 0.413 |
EST | pairitems | GLOVE | kinnas | kindad | 135 | 782 | 4.23 | 0.827 |
EST | pairitems | SKI | suusk | suusad | 508 | 2212 | 12.54 | 0.770 |
EST | flockanimals | PIGEON | tuvi | tuvid | 73 | 231 | 1.40 | 0.684 |
EST | flockanimals | BEE | mesilane | mesilased | 218 | 482 | 3.23 | 0.548 |
EST | flockanimals | SHEEP | lammas | lambad | 740 | 943 | 7.76 | 0.215 |
EST | ethnic | SPEAKERSOF | eestlane | eestlased | 12 263 | 20 607 | 151.53 | 0.405 |
EST | ethnic | AMERICAN | ameeriklane | ameeriklased | 4426 | 6629 | 50.96 | 0.332 |
EST | ethnic | EUROPEAN | eurooplane | eurooplased | 583 | 1487 | 9.54 | 0.608 |
EST | children | CHILD | laps | lapsed | 26 566 | 40 903 | 311.03 | 0.351 |
EST | children | BOY | poiss | poisid | 17 530 | 12 967 | 140.59 | −0.260 |
EST | children | GIRL | tüdruk | tüdrukud | 13 800 | 8173 | 101.29 | −0.408 |
EST | fruits | STRAWBERRY | maasikas | maasikad | 298 | 604 | 4.16 | 0.507 |
EST | fruits | APPLE | õun | õunad | 848 | 829 | 7.73 | 0.000 |
EST | fruits | POTATO | kartul | kartulid | 1517 | 964 | 11.44 | −0.365 |
EST | .random | .R | erakond | erakonnad | 5703 | 4847 | 48.63 | −0.150 |
EST | .random | .R | mark | margid | 1177 | 484 | 7.66 | −0.589 |
EST | .random | .R | teadmine | teadmised | 3997 | 3097 | 32.70 | −0.225 |
EST | .random | .R | teater | teatrid | 8236 | 764 | 41.49 | −0.907 |
EST | .random | .R | toime | toimed | 1760 | 5 | 8.14 | −0.997 |
EST | .random | .R | lootus | lootused | 6300 | 2789 | 41.90 | −0.557 |
EST | .random | .R | nägu | näod | 7918 | 1782 | 44.72 | −0.775 |
EST | .random | .R | klubi | klubid | 10 107 | 2493 | 58.09 | −0.753 |
EST | .random | .R | järv | järved | 1719 | 351 | 9.54 | −0.796 |
EST | .random | .R | vend | vennad | 8360 | 4896 | 61.11 | −0.414 |
EST | .random | .R | põhjus | põhjused | 17 651 | 4400 | 101.65 | −0.751 |
EST | .random | .R | värav | väravad | 3403 | 3245 | 30.65 | −0.046 |
EST | .random | .R | töötaja | töötajad | 7563 | 14 444 | 101.45 | 0.476 |
EST | .random | .R | kool | koolid | 11 913 | 4660 | 76.40 | −0.609 |
EST | .random | .R | jumal | jumalad | 10 107 | 509 | 48.94 | −0.950 |
EST | .random | .R | treener | treenerid | 21 834 | 2915 | 114.09 | −0.866 |
EST | .random | .R | süsteem | süsteemid | 11 833 | 891 | 58.66 | −0.925 |
EST | .random | .R | idee | ideed | 14 847 | 2789 | 81.30 | −0.812 |
NOR | bodyparts | LEG | fot | føtter | 103 | 153 | 22.65 | 0.327 |
NOR | bodyparts | LUNG | lunge | lunger | 14 | 31 | 3.98 | 0.548 |
NOR | bodyparts | EAR | øre | ører | 13 | 110 | 10.88 | 0.882 |
NOR | pairitems | SHOE | sko | sko | 5 | 40 | NA | 0.875 |
NOR | pairitems | GLOVE | hanske | hansker | 20 | 47 | 5.93 | 0.574 |
NOR | pairitems | SKI | ski | ski | 0 | 45 | NA | 1.000 |
NOR | flockanimals | PIGEON | due | duer | 25 | 36 | 5.40 | 0.000 |
NOR | flockanimals | BEE | bie | bier | 1 | 25 | 2.30 | 0.960 |
NOR | flockanimals | SHEEP | sau | sauer | 256 | 150 | 35.93 | −0.414 |
NOR | ethnic | SPEAKERSOF | nordmann | nordmenn | 202 | 1208 | 124.78 | 0.833 |
NOR | ethnic | AMERICAN | amerikaner | amerikanere | 53 | 79 | 11.68 | 0.329 |
NOR | ethnic | EUROPEAN | europeer | europeere | 11 | 44 | 4.87 | 0.750 |
NOR | children | CHILD | barn | barn | 5 | 45 | NA | 0.889 |
NOR | children | BOY | gutt | gutter | 763 | 649 | 124.96 | −0.149 |
NOR | children | GIRL | jente | jenter | 748 | 859 | 142.21 | 0.129 |
NOR | fruits | STRAWBERRY | jordbær | jordbær | 0 | 50 | NA | 1.000 |
NOR | fruits | APPLE | eple | epler | 41 | 120 | 14.25 | 0.658 |
NOR | fruits | POTATO | potet | poteter | 25 | 351 | 33.27 | 0.929 |
NOR | .random | .R | angriper | angripere | 25 | 30 | 5.73 | 0.000 |
NOR | .random | .R | base | baser | 118 | 27 | 15.10 | −0.771 |
NOR | .random | .R | belastning | belastninger | 142 | 39 | 18.85 | −0.725 |
NOR | .random | .R | garanti | garantier | 188 | 86 | 28.54 | −0.543 |
NOR | .random | .R | statssekretær | statssekretærer | 256 | 17 | 28.44 | −0.934 |
NOR | .random | .R | stykke | stykker | 423 | 123 | 56.88 | −0.709 |
NOR | .random | .R | vik | viker | 19 | 9 | 2.92 | −0.526 |
NOR | .random | .R | vitne | vitner | 263 | 319 | 60.63 | 0.176 |
NOR | .random | .R | lunsj | lunsjer | 77 | 2 | 8.23 | −0.974 |
NOR | .random | .R | banker | bankere | 77 | 2 | 8.23 | −0.974 |
NOR | .random | .R | artikkel | artikler | 235 | 202 | 45.52 | 0.000 |
NOR | .random | .R | demonstrasjon | demonstrasjoner | 98 | 82 | 18.75 | 0.000 |
NOR | .random | .R | offer | ofre | 217 | 283 | 52.08 | 0.233 |
NOR | .random | .R | virkelighet | virkeligheter | 451 | 8 | 47.81 | −0.982 |
NOR | .random | .R | tegning | tegninger | 245 | 264 | 53.02 | 0.000 |
NOR | .random | .R | storstue | storstuer | 73 | 4 | 8.02 | −0.945 |
NOR | .random | .R | søknad | søknader | 239 | 161 | 41.67 | −0.326 |
NOR | .random | .R | roman | romaner | 376 | 132 | 52.92 | −0.649 |
RUS | bodyparts | LEG | нога | ноги | 516 | 3469 | 83.32 | 0.851 |
RUS | bodyparts | LUNG | лёгкое | лёгкие | 339 | 711 | 21.95 | 0.523 |
RUS | bodyparts | EAR | ухо | уши | 527 | 833 | 28.44 | 0.367 |
RUS | pairitems | SHOE | туфля | туфли | 6 | 323 | 6.88 | 0.981 |
RUS | pairitems | GLOVE | рукавица | рукавицы | 11 | 57 | 1.42 | 0.807 |
RUS | pairitems | SKI | лыжа | лыжи | 6 | 297 | 6.34 | 0.980 |
RUS | flockanimals | PIGEON | голубь | голуби | 90 | 109 | 4.16 | 0.000 |
RUS | flockanimals | BEE | пчела | пчелы | 51 | 111 | 3.39 | 0.541 |
RUS | flockanimals | SHEEP | овца | овцы | 64 | 201 | 5.54 | 0.682 |
RUS | ethnic | SPEAKERSOF | русский | русские | 17 | 50 | 43.28 | 0.660 |
RUS | ethnic | AMERICAN | англичанин | американцы | 320 | 1046 | 28.56 | 0.694 |
RUS | ethnic | EUROPEAN | европеец | европейцы | 77 | 324 | 8.38 | 0.762 |
RUS | children | CHILD | дитя | дети | 398 | 6698 | 148.37 | 0.941 |
RUS | children | BOY | мальчик | мальчики | 1623 | 486 | 44.10 | −0.701 |
RUS | children | GIRL | девочка | девочки | 1414 | 1158 | 53.78 | −0.181 |
RUS | fruits | STRAWBERRY | земляника | земляники | 53 | 88 | 2.95 | 0.398 |
RUS | fruits | APPLE | яблоко | яблоки | 224 | 373 | 12.48 | 0.399 |
RUS | fruits | POTATO | картофелина | картофель | 6 | 199 | 4.29 | 0.970 |
RUS | .random | .R | видимость | видимости | 299 | 740 | 21.72 | 0.596 |
RUS | .random | .R | вор | воры | 265 | 205 | 9.83 | −0.226 |
RUS | .random | .R | скатерть | скатерти | 93 | 80 | 3.62 | 0.000 |
RUS | .random | .R | казарма | казармы | 29 | 162 | 3.99 | 0.821 |
RUS | .random | .R | набор | наборы | 1879 | 154 | 42.51 | −0.918 |
RUS | .random | .R | пауза | паузы | 459 | 319 | 16.27 | −0.305 |
RUS | .random | .R | паспорт | паспорта | 826 | 500 | 27.73 | −0.395 |
RUS | .random | .R | ребро | рёбра | 74 | 193 | 5.58 | 0.617 |
RUS | .random | .R | общество | общества | 4561 | 9189 | 287.50 | 0.504 |
RUS | .random | .R | достоинство | достоинства | 810 | 1221 | 42.47 | 0.337 |
RUS | .random | .R | действие | действия | 3860 | 8235 | 252.90 | 0.531 |
RUS | .random | .R | период | периоды | 9462 | 879 | 216.22 | −0.907 |
RUS | .random | .R | след | следы | 806 | 959 | 36.90 | 0.160 |
RUS | .random | .R | сомнение | сомнения | 738 | 1844 | 53.99 | 0.600 |
RUS | .random | .R | понимание | понимания | 1858 | 1597 | 72.24 | −0.140 |
RUS | .random | .R | князь | князья | 1024 | 146 | 24.46 | −0.857 |
RUS | .random | .R | клиент | клиенты | 654 | 470 | 23.50 | −0.281 |
RUS | .random | .R | дверца | дверцы | 52 | 86 | 2.89 | 0.395 |
LAT | bodyparts | EAR | auss | ausis | 18 | 97 | 26.08 | 0.814 |
LAT | bodyparts | LUNG | plauša | plaušas | 0 | 28 | 6.35 | 1.000 |
LAT | bodyparts | LEG | kāja | kājas | 60 | 263 | 73.26 | 0.772 |
LAT | pairitems | SKI | slēpe | slēpes | 0 | 1 | 0.23 | 0.000 |
LAT | pairitems | GLOVE | cimds | cimdi | 4 | 20 | 5.44 | 0.800 |
LAT | pairitems | SHOE | kurpe | kurpe | 8 | 49 | 12.93 | 0.837 |
LAT | flockanimals | BEE | bite | bites | 9 | 7 | 3.63 | 0.000 |
LAT | flockanimals | SHEEP | aita | aitas | 4 | 11 | 3.40 | 0.000 |
LAT | flockanimals | PIGEON | balodis | baloži | 73 | 24 | 22.00 | −0.671 |
LAT | ethnic | AMERICAN | amerikānis | amerikāņi | 32 | 70 | 23.13 | 0.543 |
LAT | ethnic | EUROPEAN | eiropietis | eiropieši | 2 | 15 | 3.86 | 0.867 |
LAT | ethnic | SPEAKERSOF | latvietis | latvieši | 80 | 237 | 71.90 | 0.662 |
LAT | children | GIRL | meitene | meitenes | 655 | 202 | 194.38 | −0.692 |
LAT | children | BOY | zēns | zēni | 186 | 132 | 72.13 | −0.290 |
LAT | children | CHILD | bērns | bērni | 1056 | 1446 | 567.48 | 0.270 |
LAT | fruits | STRAWBERRY | zemene | zemenes | 4 | 48 | 11.79 | 0.917 |
LAT | fruits | APPLE | ābols | āboli | 33 | 100 | 30.17 | 0.670 |
LAT | fruits | POTATO | kartupelis | kartupeļi | 4 | 142 | 33.11 | 0.972 |
LAT | .random | .R | izstāde | izstāde | 203 | 4 | 46.95 | −0.980 |
LAT | .random | .R | prasība | prasība | 145 | 536 | 154.46 | 0.729 |
LAT | .random | .R | vieta | vieta | 952 | 16 | 219.55 | −0.983 |
LAT | .random | .R | zeme | zeme | 359 | 1 | 81.65 | −0.997 |
LAT | .random | .R | gods | gods | 89 | 1 | 20.41 | −0.989 |
LAT | .random | .R | krusts | krusts | 47 | 7 | 12.25 | −0.851 |
LAT | .random | .R | kaimiņš | kaimiņš | 44 | 121 | 37.42 | 0.636 |
LAT | .random | .R | stāsts | stāsts | 327 | 127 | 102.97 | −0.612 |
LAT | .random | .R | mirklis | mirklis | 55 | 22 | 17.46 | −0.600 |
LAT | .random | .R | līnija | līnija | 95 | 1 | 21.77 | −0.989 |
LAT | .random | .R | zieds | ziedi | 51 | 102 | 34.70 | 0.500 |
LAT | .random | .R | koris | kori | 81 | 15 | 21.77 | −0.815 |
LAT | .random | .R | dievs | dievi | 574 | 41 | 139.49 | −0.929 |
LAT | .random | .R | pacients | pacienti | 154 | 209 | 82.33 | 0.263 |
LAT | .random | .R | speciālists | speciālisti | 190 | 465 | 148.56 | 0.591 |
LAT | .random | .R | priekšmets | priekšmeti | 121 | 101 | 50.35 | 0.000 |
LAT | .random | .R | pakalpojums | pakalpojumi | 91 | 190 | 63.73 | 0.521 |
LAT | .random | .R | pieprasījums | pieprasījumi | 212 | 11 | 50.58 | −0.948 |
ENG | bodyparts | LEG | leg | legs | 3257 | 4174 | 102.27 | 0.220 |
ENG | bodyparts | LUNG | lung | lungs | 189 | 568 | 10.42 | 0.667 |
ENG | bodyparts | EAR | ear | ears | 1499 | 1905 | 46.85 | 0.213 |
ENG | pairitems | SHOE | shoe | shoes | 514 | 2407 | 40.20 | 0.786 |
ENG | pairitems | GLOVE | glove | gloves | 212 | 660 | 12.00 | 0.679 |
ENG | pairitems | SKI | ski | skis | 52 | 173 | 3.10 | 0.699 |
ENG | flockanimals | PIGEON | pigeon | pigeons | 165 | 277 | 6.08 | 0.404 |
ENG | flockanimals | BEE | bee | bees | 251 | 468 | 9.89 | 0.464 |
ENG | flockanimals | SHEEP | sheep | sheep | 4 | 36 | NA | 0.889 |
ENG | ethnic | SPEAKERSOF | brit | brits | 59 | 157 | 2.97 | 0.624 |
ENG | ethnic | AMERICAN | american | americans | 309 | 1887 | 30.22 | 0.836 |
ENG | ethnic | EUROPEAN | european | europeans | 212 | 491 | 9.67 | 0.568 |
ENG | children | CHILD | child | children | 11 475 | 28 253 | 546.74 | 0.594 |
ENG | children | BOY | boy | boys | 7866 | 4845 | 174.93 | −0.384 |
ENG | children | GIRL | girl | girls | 9467 | 5122 | 200.78 | −0.459 |
ENG | fruits | STRAWBERRY | strawberry | strawberries | 106 | 179 | 3.92 | 0.408 |
ENG | fruits | APPLE | apple | apples | 18 | 22 | NA | 0.000 |
ENG | fruits | POTATO | potato | potatoes | 294 | 995 | 17.74 | 0.705 |
ENG | .random | .R | clearing | clearings | 176 | 30 | 2.83 | −0.830 |
ENG | .random | .R | claim | claims | 3448 | 3070 | 89.70 | −0.110 |
ENG | .random | .R | headline | headlines | 274 | 592 | 11.92 | 0.537 |
ENG | .random | .R | representation | representations | 2338 | 1010 | 46.08 | −0.568 |
ENG | .random | .R | background | backgrounds | 3164 | 465 | 49.94 | −0.853 |
ENG | .random | .R | recorder | recorders | 552 | 193 | 10.25 | −0.650 |
ENG | .random | .R | tablet | tablets | 222 | 670 | 12.28 | 0.669 |
ENG | .random | .R | primary | primaries | 216 | 122 | 4.65 | −0.435 |
ENG | .random | .R | batch | batches | 372 | 105 | 6.56 | −0.718 |
ENG | .random | .R | noun | nouns | 230 | 128 | 4.93 | −0.443 |
ENG | .random | .R | partner | partners | 2947 | 2698 | 77.69 | −0.084 |
ENG | .random | .R | governor | governors | 1495 | 1203 | 37.13 | −0.195 |
ENG | .random | .R | mistake | mistakes | 2490 | 1056 | 48.80 | −0.576 |
ENG | .random | .R | opening | openings | 1814 | 260 | 28.54 | −0.857 |
ENG | .random | .R | reconstruction | reconstructions | 629 | 67 | 9.58 | −0.893 |
ENG | .random | .R | approval | approvals | 2760 | 95 | 39.29 | −0.966 |
ENG | .random | .R | bail | bails | 432 | 11 | 6.10 | −0.975 |
ENG | .random | .R | slope | slopes | 743 | 604 | 18.54 | −0.187 |
Corpora
- BNC
= The British National Corpus (of English), version 3 (BNC XML Edition). 2007. Distributed by Oxford University Computing Services on behalf of the BNC Consortium. URL: http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/
- EKK
= Eesti keele koondkorpus [Estonian Reference Corpus]. The morphologically tagged version (cf. Kirt 2013) was used in this study. The most current version is available at http://www.cl.ut.ee/korpused.
- MLVTK
= Mūsdienu latviešu valodas tekstu korpuss [Modern Latvian Text Corpus]. Available at http://www.korpuss.lv/(accessed 01.10.2014)
- OK
= Oslo-korpuset av taggede norske tekster (bokmålsdelen) [The Oslo Corpus of Tagged Norwegian Texts (the bokmål-part)]. Available at http://www.tekstlab.uio.no/norsk/bokmaal/
- RNC
= National Corpus of the Russian Language (НКРЯ=Национальный корпус русского языка) Available at http://ruscorpora.ru/(accessed 23.11.2014).
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