The current state of the creation and modernization of national geodetic and cartographic resources in Poland

2.1.1 The horizontal reference frame

Horizontal reference frames designated as PL-ETRF2000 and PL-ETRF89, which are the mathematical and physical implementation of the European Terrestrial Reference System ETRS89. The system currently in force is PL-ETRF2000 with the implementation of epoch 2011.00. The result of physical implementation of PL-ETRF2000 is the European Permanent Network (EPN) with precisely designated coordinates and changes of these coordinates in time. The transfer into the territory of Poland and maintenance of the PL-ETRF2000 geodetic reference frame is supported by the EUPOS Active Geodetic Network (ASG-EUPOS) [9]. The geodetic reference frame PL-ETRF89 is still maintained for an interim period as a reference for classically-surveyed geodetic control networks.

2.1.2 The vertical reference frame

Vertical reference frames are marked by symbols PL-KRON86-NH and PL-EVRF2007-NH, which are the mathematical and physical implementation of the European Vertical Reference System (EVRS). In Poland, the normal heights are used. Normal heights are determined based on geodetic measurements referenced to the Earth’s gravitational field [10] – with respect to reference surface, or from GNSS measurements using the official quasigeoid model GUGiK2001 in Poland [11]. The vertical reference frame PL-KRON86-NH is associated with the tide-gauge in Kronstadt and can be used until the implementation of the PL-EVRF2007-NH frame throughout the country until 31 December 2019. The vertical reference frame PL-EVRF2007-NH is associated with the tide-gauge in Amsterdam and should only be used in new projects realized from 1 January 2014. The normal heights were obtained from the cumulative adjustment of the results of precise levelling campaigns carried out in the period 1998-2012 in relation to the fundamental vertical network.

2.1.3 Coordinate systems and projections

Currently in Poland are used the following coordinate systems: Cartesian geocentric designated XYZ, geocentric geodetic designated GRS80h and geodetic designated GRS80H. In the Cartesian geocentric coordinate system, designated XYZ coordinates are given in metres and are used in navigation and geodesy, particularly for using satellite technologies and for the maintenance of the ETRS89 reference system. The GRS80h geocentric geodetic coordinate system is used in surveying, particularly for using satellite measurement techniques. The GRS80H geodetic coordinate system is also used in surveying, particularly for using points of the geodetic control network and in classical measurement techniques. The GRS80H system (designated by a capital letter H) denotes practical heights (orthometric or normal heights) above the sea level used in mapping and engineering practice. The system GRS80h (designated by a small letter h) denoting geodetic heights measured along the normal to the ellipsoid. If we know the undulation (N) of the geoid from the geocentric reference ellipsoid, we get the useful height H ≈ h – N [12].

Systems of plane rectangular coordinates, marked by symbols: PL-LAEA, PL-LCC, PL-UTM, PL-1992 and PL-2000. These are new coordinate systems based on the GRS80 ellipsoid, previous systems up to 2009 were based on the Krasovsky ellipsoid (including the PUWG-1942, PUWG-1965 and GUGiK-80 systems). In the new systems, PL-LAEA and PL-LCC used the Lambert projections and azimuthal equal-area and conformal (equiangular) conic, respectively. The coordinate system PL-LAEA is used for spatial analysis and reporting at the European level, while the PL-LCC coordinate system is applied for maps on 1:500,000 and smaller scales. The PL-UTM system uses transverse Mercator projection, which consists of three lanes with a meridian width of 6 degrees of geodetic longitude each (meridian axial 15°, 21° and 27°), applied for standard cartography on scales from 1:10, 000 to 1:250,000, for the issue of marine maps and for other maps dedicated to national security and defence. However, the PL-1992 and PL-2000 systems use Gauss-Krüger projection to implement a one-zone system with a 19° meridian axial (PL-1992 for topographic maps) and the realization of a four-zone system (with a width of 3° each) with 15°, 18°, 21° and 24° meridians axial (PL-2000 for large-scale maps).

2.2.1 Magnetic Control Networks

Monitoring changes in the Earth’s magnetic field in Poland requires systematic measurements of the age points of the magnetic control network. The current values of the elements of the geomagnetic field are used for military and civilian purposes related to geodesy, navigation and geophysical and geological surveys [14]. The base magnetic control network consists of:

1. magnetic age points (fundamental) in which at least three independent elements of the magnetic field vector of the Earth are determined, providing at least one point per 20,000 km²;

2. magnetic base points which provide an average density of 1 point per 500 km², wherein the local density of the points depends on the spatial distribution of the magnetic field.

2.2.2 Gravimetric control network

The Polish gravimetric control network established at the end of the 20th century according to international standards spanned 12 absolute gravity stations surveyed with four different types of absolute gravimeters. The development of instruments for precise field absolute gravity measurements provides an opportunity to establish a new type of gravimetric control network consisting of stations surveyed with absolute gravimeters. A new gravimetric control network planned to be established in 2012-2014 will consist of 28 fundamental points surveyed with a FG5 gravimeter and 169 base points surveyed with an A10 gravimeter [15].

The base gravimetric control network consists of:

1. gravimetric fundamental points, which provide at least one point per 15,000 km²;

2. gravimetric base points, which determine the absolute or the relative designations of points, with a density of at least one point per 2,500 km² (together with gravimetric fundamental points).

2.2.3 Geodetic control network

For the modernization of the base geodetic control network, an adjustment was made in the PL-1992 system [16]. The adjustment used sets of observations from 1981 for the total adjustment of the geodetic-astronomical network (SAG) and filling network (SW), based on the Krasovsky ellipsoid. In the adjustment, the average 2.7^CC angle measurement error was adopted and was m₀ = 1.01. It was found that 95% of points (out of nearly 7 thousand) were characterized by a position error of no more than 0.03 m. The main geodetic control network consists of points of the horizontal and the vertical networks. The coordinates of the horizontal base geodetic control network points are determined using GNSS. The heights of the points are determined by geometric precise levelling.

The base fundamental geodetic horizontal control network are stations of the ASG-EUPOS reference network, which belong to the network of permanent EPN stations. The points of the base fundamental geodetic horizontal control network meet the criteria established by the Subcommittee EUREF and provide an average density of 1 point per 20,000 km². The average error of the point’s position should not exceed 0.01 m and error of the point’s height should not be greater than 0.02 m.

The base basic geodetic horizontal control network consists of:

1. EUREF-POL network points, there are 11 points in Poland whose coordinates were determined in the EU-REF89 geodetic reference frame in 1992 using the GPS survey method with reference to the points of the ETRF European network;

2. POLREF network points, there are 348 points in Poland whose coordinates were determined in the EUREF89 geodetic reference frames in 1994-1995 by GPS survey with reference to the EUREF-POL network points;

3. EUVN network points, there are 62 height points in Poland whose coordinates were determined in the EU-REF89 geodetic reference frames and heights were determined in the EVRS07 European vertical system, in 1997-1999 by GPS survey with reference to ETRF and EUVN European network points;

4. points of the astro-geodetic network (designated as SAG) and points which filled of SAG’s framework as areal triangulation network (designated as SW), a total of 6,526 points determined by classical measurements [17];

5. ASG-EUPOS reference network stations (Figure 1)

Figure 1

Location of the stations of reference network ASG-EUPOS [9].

The role of the receiving segment (ground control) of the ASG-EUPOS system is to collect observational data from GNSS satellites and transfer them in real time into the Calculation Centre. The segment consists of GNSS reference stations evenly distributed over Poland and neighbouring countries [18]. According to the EUPOS standard, during the construction of the receiving segment, the following assumptions were made:

1. the mean distance between stations is 70 km,

2. existing EPN and IGS stations have been incorporated into the network of reference stations,

3. coordinates of the stations will be determined in the ETRS89 system and national systems,

4. only precise dual-frequency GNSS receivers have been used in the reference stations,

5. the location of the reference stations were chosen to ensure convenient conditions for GNSS satellite observations.

The total number of stations incorporated into the system should not exceed 130 (there are currently 100 Polish and 22 foreign stations [19]). The national reference stations are mostly located on public administration buildings of the province and district levels, research institutes and education buildings. Real-time services and post-processing services are provided in the ASG-EUPOS system (Table 2).

Real-time services are available across the entire territory of Poland where a user is able to connect directly to the Internet or via GPRS. All services require authentication in the NTRIP protocol approved by the RTCM Organization. After registration via a web page, a user receives a username and password.

Corrections from ASG-EUPOS are available on a specified TCP/IP address and port where before receiving data it is necessary to send a username and password. When the system recognizes the user, it will enable requested corrections. In the case of network corrections with a username and password, a receiver must send an approximate position in NMEA format to calculate corrections valid for this area.

In the process of modernization, the geodetic control network and the ASG-EUPOS were integrated. The results of the integration of the reference network ASG-EUPOS with the geodetic control network are positive [20]. The average differences between the POLREF and ASG-EUPOS coordinates were 7 mm horizontally. The results for the class I control network were worse - the average difference was 19 mm, but for some individual points the difference was sometimes greater.

In Poland, the base fundamental geodetic vertical control network are the main points of the EUVN Network, and the base basic geodetic vertical control network consists of height points measurements with precise geometry levelling [13]. The accuracy of the levelling network is characterized by an average error of measurement per 1 km of the levelling network calculated in the adjustment process and this error should not be greater than 1.5 mm/km. In designing the points of base vertical control network, the points must:

1. be reference to the points of the fundamental vertical control network;

2. provide the possibility of linking the vertical control network with neighbouring countries and tide gauge stations;

3. provide the ability to make GNSS surveys on network node points.

In addition, horizontal and vertical second order control networks (in Poland so-called “a detailed control networks”) are created and collected for the needs of the districts [13]. The detailed (second order) horizontal control network is a set of points which develop the base (first order) horizontal control network and are used to make the survey networks and perform field surveying.

A detailed horizontal control network consists of:

1. points of a previous 2nd class horizontal control network, with an average position error of m_P≤ 0.05 m;

2. points of a previous 3rd class horizontal control network, with an average error position of m_P ≤ 0.10 m;

3. newly-created points of a horizontal control network positioning with an average error of m_P≤ 0.07 m.

Points of a detailed horizontal control network are created by: static GNSS measurements, surveys in the ASG-EUPOS system and classic measurements in the traversing method or other angular and linear survey methods. The points of a detailed horizontal control network should be determined by heights with an accuracy at least 0.05 m.

The detailed (second order) vertical control network is a set of points which develop the base (first order) vertical control network and are used to make network surveys and perform field surveying. A detailed vertical control network consists of: a levelling network survey with geometry levelling using points created by static GNSS measurements with at least a four-point base vertical control network. The accuracy of the levelling network is characterized by an average measurement error of 1 km of the levelling network (calculated in the adjustment process) which should not be greater than 4 mm/km, and error of height of the point after adjusting should not be greater than 0.01 m.

According to the Polish Regulation [13] regarding the geodetic, gravimetric and magnetic control networks, new points of control network survey with the GNSS method and points of gravimetric and magnetic control networks are created as multi-functional control network points. A multi-functional control network is not separately classified; its points are classified within different types of control networks (geodetic, gravimetric or magnetic).

Moreover, a detailed double-functional control network has been created (both horizontal and vertical) in Poland for over 30 years, whose marks are placed on buildings and other elements of durable infrastructure using so-called “restoration technology of control network’s point” [21].

2.3.1 Polish NSDI and Large-Scale Map Data

Polish National SDI according to the Act on Spatial Information Infrastructure [2] is established, maintained and developed by twelve leading bodies. Each leading body coordinates the work and assures the implementation within the scope of a specified theme related to the 34 themes of the SDI.

The Surveyor General of Poland plays a key role in the implementation process of the Polish NSDI. The implementation body of the Surveyor General is the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography that prepares and submits the government programmes regarding the execution of tasks in the field of NSDI. 15 of the 34 themes specified by the Directive on INSPIRE are implemented by the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography. Another important player is the Ministry of the Environment being the active leader of the implementation measures with regard to environmental data themes. In Ministry of the Environment are coordinated fourteen themes by ten other central offices. In Poland is building the NSDI based on a top-down strategy. Considerable financial resources for this are mostly spent on the construction and development of a geoportal [22], and the development of modern topographic maps and aerial images [23].

Large-scale map data are stored in theme databases and are obligatory components of the national spatial information system [24]. Along with other spatial data, they together co-create three thematic groups of the Polish spatial information infrastructure [2]. The large-scale base map in Poland has been created from several data sources [1, 25, 26]:

1. a real estate cadastre database EGiB,

2. the GESUT geodetic database of utilities,

3. the PRG national database of boundaries and areas of territorial division,

4. the PRPOG national database of base (first order) geodetic control networks,

5. the BDSOG district’s databases of detailed (second order) geodetic control networks,

6. the BDOT500 sets of topographical objects which ensure the creation of databases in the standard 1:500 –1:5000 cartographic scales.

In a modern digital form, typical large-scale cartographic products are created by compiling collected sets of data or databases. This approach facilitates the collection, maintenance, distribution and use of the SDI. By reducing duplication, facilitating integration and also respecting user needs, integration of data can produce savings [27].

There are many methods of producing large-scale map data (Figure 2), which lead to different quality of databases or maps. For quality of data, the key is accuracy and estimation of the accuracy of the databases of large-scale maps to guarantee that national geodetic and cartographic resources meet the relevant quality standards [28]. It is essential to ensure the transparency of relations between map producers and users and for developing trust in SDI through accuracy [29].

Figure 2

The proposed outline of the possible methods of producing large-scale map data (author’s elaboration).

2.3.2 SDI in other selected countries

Because the National Spatial Data Infrastructures are is strongly dependent on pre-existing infrastructures, it is necessary to presented some characteristics of these infrastructures in some countries. In author’s opinion are main important issues for the NSDI, there are: data sources, information about services and new publication of them.

The GEOSS Portal, Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS), is main entry point to Earth observation data from all over the world [30] provided by: Group on Global Earth Observation, European Space Agency and National Research Council of Italy.

Furthermore, is initiation for Global Spatial Data Infrastructure – GSDI Association [31]. The Association was formed in 2004 as an inclusive networking organization of academic and research institutions, government agencies, commercial geomatics companies, national and regional Geographic Information associations, professionals and students from around the World. SDI can be divided into five levels of collection of spatial data [32]: global, regional in global scale, national, regional in national scale and local.

The multi-national GSDI organisation includes representatives from all continents, which are integrated in Regional Board for: Africa, Asia and Pacific, Europe, North America, South America.

In Africa was established in Nairobi – Kenya in 1975 the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD) [33]. RCMRD is an inter-governmental organization and currently has 20 members in the Eastern and Southern Africa Regions (Botswana, Burundi, Comoros, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somali, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe). RCMRD portal presents the 9 themes of the SDI: Geo-Data, Agriculture, Biodiversity, Climate, Disasters, Ecosystems, Health, Water and Weather. Web services of Geo-Data include [34]: African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF), Web Map Service for serving georeferenced map images (WMS), meta-catalog of geographic data (GeoNetwork) and geoportal for disseminating open geospatial datasets and maps (GeoPortal). Main the geo-data sets and map data are: a continental reference system as a basis for national reference networks, the African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF) Permanent Stations, a refined geoid model for Africa, the African Regional Spatial Data Infrastructure, the Mapping Africa for Africa Initiative (MAFA), digital database of Second Administrative Level Boundaries, the Transport Infrastructure Database (TIDB) and database Programme of Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA).

Asia and Pacific Region activities and the concept of Regional SDI are compatible with current Asia-Pacific SDI (APSDI) initiative. Through the efforts of the United Nation Regional Cartographic Conference, the national mapping agencies in the Asia-Pacific Region formed the Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific (PCGIAP) in 1995 [35]. Mission of PCGIAP is to develop the SDI for Asia and the Pacific Region and contribute to the development of the Global SDI. The PCGIAP has developed a conceptual model for its SDI initiative that comprises four core components - institutional framework, technical standards, fundamental datasets, and access networks. The PCGIAP include list of fundamental datasets, which constitute of the Asia-Pacific Spatial Data Infrastructure themes [36]: geo-reference framework for the APSDI (Geodetic Control Network); elevation data (DEM, Elevation); natural and constructed drainage features (Drainage Systems); road, rail, seaports and airports (Transportation); geographic location and extent of cities and major towns (Populated Places); officially recognised names of geographic and cultural features (Geographical Place Names); natural vegetation, forests, cultivated crops (Vegetation); earthquake zones, flood plains, volcanoes, climate history (Natural Hazards); national or provincial boundaries and exclusive economic zones (Administrative Boundaries); population distribution, agriculture, secondary industries, conservation reserves (Land Use).

Also there are interesting data from Asia-Pacific Data-Research Center (APDRC) [37]. APDRC provides the climate data and products on: ocean temperature, salinity, nutrients, bathymetry, sea level, surface winds, pressure, precipitation, ocean currents, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, short wave radiation, long wave radiation, net heat flux, clouds, air temperature and humidity.

In Europe a major recent development has been the entering in force of the INSPIRE Directive in May 2007, establishing an infrastructure for spatial information in Europe to support Community environmental policies, and policies or activities which may have an impact on the environment. INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community) is based on the infrastructures for spatial information established and operated by the 28 Member States of the European Union. The Directive addresses 34 spatial data themes needed for environmental applications, with key components specified through technical implementing rules.

The INSPIRE Directive requires the Commission to establish a community geo-portal and the Member States shall provide access to their infrastructures through the geo-portal as well as through any access points they themselves decide to operate. For territory of Member States of European Union to provide discovery and view services according to the INSPIRE Regulation on Network Services, a release of the INSPIRE Geoportal was published for enhancing access European spatial data [38]. The INSPIRE Geoportal provides the means to search for spatial data sets and spatial data services, and subject to access restrictions, to view spatial data sets from the EU Member States within the framework of the INSPIRE Directive.

There are important United Nations Regional Cartographic Conferences (UNRCC) organized, among others, by countries of the region both Americas [32]. Exist also the Permanent Committee for Geospatial Data Infrastructure for the Americas (Comité Permanente para la Infraestructura de Datos Geoespaciales de las Américas CP-IDEA), in which are represented the 24 countries of South America and North America, including the United States and Canada.

Some interesting spatial data are published by Latin American and Caribbean agencies in the GeoSUR Portal [39]. The GeoSUR Portal provides spatial data in map services operated by participating agencies in a decentralized fashion. These services are owned by spatial data producers from the region. The data may be consulted directly by means of partner map services, a regional map viewer contained in this portal or through various metadata services. The Portal was developed with the technical support of the Geological Survey from United States of America (USGS).

United States of America should be distinction because there was established over 20 years ago the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) - as a pioneering venture in the world-scale [32]. NSDI are provided by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC), which is an interagency committee that promotes the coordinated development, use, sharing, and dissemination of geospatial data on a national basis [40].

A special feature of NSDI is a large number of bodies and institutions producing spatial data and managers in 50 states with a significant degree self governance, by this impeding the coordination. In the NSDI are 34 themes, including 7 which are associated with the framework data-which are so-called geo-reference data: geodetic control, orthoimagery, elevation and bathymetry, transportation, hydrography, cadastre, governmental units. This is similar to the INSPIRE themes, but themes NSDI contain more topics of social and economic, e.g. on cultural resources, land registers, state land and crime statistics.

2.4.1 Technical Standards for Field Surveying and Data Acquisition in Poland

Large-scale map data are produced by various methods and, in accordance with research results (e.g. [41]), digital maps based on acquired data do not always meet the requirements of accuracy level specified in technical standards.

Therefore, it was very important that the technical standard describes which data sets include requirements for geodetic measurements and other modern methods of data acquisition [42].

The Regulation [42] sets out standards for geodetic works involving the technology of positioning of topographic points using field surveying, photogrammetric surveying and map digitizing (so-called cartographic (cartometric) surveying).

The name “planimetric measurement” is used to identify and survey the position of the geometric centroid of point objects, node points of axis linear object and node points of surface object, so as to designate the coordinates of these points in the current system of plane rectangular coordinates [42].

Based on the results of previous research (e.g. [43]), it is known that to ensure homogeneity and adequate accuracy of the positioning of topographic points, reference to the points of the control network (which are characterized by the high accuracy of their position) is crucial.

The main method of field surveying is the use of satellite precise positioning techniques, which are performed using global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). These include: static and rapid static techniques and kinematic technique RTK (Real Time Kinematic, using its own base receiver at the reference point) or RTN (Real Time Network, using the stations of reference networks). In GNSS measurements, the ASG-EUPOS system is used along with other reference stations if the data defining the location of these stations were included in the national geodetic and cartographic resource. A GNSS measurement method is executed when there is a direct reception of satellite signals and the signals are not obstructed by devices emitting electromagnetic waves, particularly: radio and television transmitters, power lines or digital telephony stations. Before and after the measuring session performed by GNSS method, the receiver antenna height is determined with an accuracy of up to 0.01 m. For each measuring session, the RTK and RTN kinematic techniques are performed to check surveys on at least two points of the horizontal control network, located at a distance of not more than 5 km from the points subject to measurement. The linear deviation determined by the check survey must not exceed 0.12 m for the plane rectangular coordinates. In addition, planimetric measurement are performed by the polar, orthogonal and other angular and linear survey methods. Measurements should ensure that the accuracy determines distances with an average error of no more than 0.01 m + 1 ppm and angles with an average error of not more than 30^cc. The Gauss law of moving-average error is used to calculate the root mean square error of a point, determined on the basis of measurement data [42].

The name “photogrammetric survey” is used for measurements carried out on a terrain model created from processed aerial photographs or satellite images [42].

Based on the results of the research (e.g. [44, 45], it is known that the accuracy of digital photogrammetric works (both orthophotomap and the data obtained from the stereo-photogrammetric model) realized on the basis of large-scale photographs has a similar accuracy to data obtained in field surveying; the key problem being the visibility of objects in the photographs.

Photogrammetric surveys are performed only by digital technology although they can also be performed with the laser scanning method. Photogrammetric works are verified and are complemented with field survey methods. To complement the content of aerial photographs, satellite images of the area are compared and the necessary elements are surveyed in the field. The verification of the works is performed by a field survey of selected check points evenly distributed over the area being developed and points located on the edges of stereograms [42].

However, the name “cartographic (or cartometric) survey” is used for measurements carried out on an analogue map or on a calibrated raster form and on the digital ortophotomap [42].

Based on previous research (e.g. [46, 47], it is known that it is possible to designate objects on a raster image of an orthophotomap with high accuracy.

A map digitizing can be performed only if the graphical accuracy of the analogue map was characterized by an average position error of a well-defined point of no more than ±0.3 mm on the map scale. It is recommended to scan the maps on a scanner providing a real (optical) resolution of 400 dpi and a scanning accuracy of 0.0002 m. Calibration of the raster image of the sheet of an analogue map is performed using at least 20 equally-spaced fit points on the external border and within the transformed area, while maintaining the accuracy of the transformation, expressing an average error of transformation of not more than [42]: 0.20 m (on 1:500 map scale), 0.40 m (1:1000), 0.80 m (1:2000) and 2.00 m (1:5000).

Field surveying and other methods of data acquisition should ensure adequate accuracy of the positioning of topographic points (with respect to the nearest points of the control network), which were divided into three groups of accuracy [42]:

1. the 1st accuracy group, with an error not greater than 0.10 m (i.e. the so-called “well-defined” points, inter alia: marks of boundary points, marks of control network points, buildings and engineering structures, including elements of utilities available for direct survey);

2. the 2nd accuracy group, with an error not greater than 0.30 m (inter alia: ground buildings and construction devices in the form of embankments, excavations, dikes, levees, ditches, canals, artificial lakes, hidden elements of public utilities and land development components, particularly: parks, lawns, playgrounds and recreation, single trees and sports fields);

3. the 3rd accuracy group, with an error not greater than 0.50 m (inter alia: contours of agricultural land and soil pits for the needs of soil classification, rivers and lakes with natural boundary lines, forestry fields on forest areas and national parks).

2.4.2 Technical Standards in other selected countries

Theme of technical standards for surveying is wide, author of this paper refer to aspect of large scale map data acquisition in USA, GB and PRC.

In United States of America (USA) federal, state and local governments make surveys and maps of various types that are referenced to national horizontal and vertical datums. Requirements for geodetic control are restrictive in urban areas where intense development is taking place and land values are high. U.S. Government agencies and the private sector cooperate in many aspects of surveying and mapping. In making surveys and maps of large or small land areas, it is first necessary to establish frameworks of horizontal and vertical control to provide a basis for all surveying and mapping operations and so insure a coherent product. This is an especially important first step in creating a Geographic or Land Information System (GIS/LIS) and in the digital map making. On federal level the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) develops geospatial data standards for collecting, sharing and use of geo-data [48].

In Engineer Manual about control and topographic surveying was presented three class of topographic surveying and other map data acquisition, which depend on the degree of territory urbanization [49]. The Engineer Manual contains the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) accuracy standards [50]. ASPRS released of the new Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data in 2014. The new ASPRS standards include horizontal and vertical thresholds for digital geospatial data, whereas the National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA), published in 1998, did not provide accuracy levels. The ASPRS (of 1990) standard provided accuracy thresholds for hardcopy maps only, as did the National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) of 1947. For these reasons, in the new ASPRS standards were established accuracy levels for digital geospatial data [51].

The new standards specifically intended for digital orthoimagery, digital planimetric data and digital elevation data (all independent of map scale), as well as scaled maps, including the following:

1. new horizontal accuracy classes based on root mean square errors (RMSE) and horizontal accuracy at the 95% confidence level;

2. new vertical accuracy classes based on RMSE and vertical accuracy at the 95% confidence level; new vegetated vertical accuracy (VVA) and non-vegetated vertical accuracy (NVA) procedures for accuracy assessment of elevation data in vegetated and non-vegetated areas;

3. accuracy requirements for aerial triangulation, ground control used for aerial triangulation, and INS-based sensor orientation of digital imagery; requirements for identification of low confidence areas for elevation data, and guidance on designation of low confidence areas;

4. guidance for assessing the relative accuracy of LIDAR and IFSAR swaths;

5. recommended number of horizontal and vertical control points based on project area; and other guidelines and examples of accuracy testing and reporting.

In topic of accuracy standard for large scale map data, for example, given a map or orthoimagery with an accuracy of RMSE 0.15 m (for X and Y axis) according to new 2014 standard. We can compute the equivalent accuracy and map scale according to the legacy ASPRS map standard (of 1990), for the given map or orthoimagery. Multiply the RMSE (X) and RMSE (Y) value in centimeters by 40 to compute the map scale factor (MSF) for a Class 1 map. Then the map scale according to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 is equal to 1:600 Class 1 and the accuracy value of is also equivalent to Class 2 accuracy for a map with a scale of 1:300.

In Great Britain (GB) Ordnance Survey (OS) is an executive agency as well as a non-ministerial department [52]. It carries out the official surveying of Great Britain, providing the most accurate and up-to-date geographic data, relied on by government, business and individuals. OS mapping data has played a central role in the development and launch of Resilience Direct which has helped government agencies to established system for emergency response.

Ordnance Survey provides wide access to geo-data from user-friendly maps to the high levels of detail we require for across England and Wales. OS provides the geodata and products on: detailed topography, roads and networks, addressing, height and imagery, backdrop maps, names and gazetteers [53].

Interesting are tolerance and accuracy of the Ordnance Survey maps defined as absolute positional accuracy. In this was compared the location of a position scaled from a map with the true position on the ground, i.e. how closely the coordinates of a point on the map agree with the coordinates of the same point on the ground (in the British National Grid Reference System). In years 2001-2006 by Ordnance Survey was realized the Positional Accuracy Improvement (PAI) Programme. In this programme was checked and improved the absolute accuracy of all maps covering rural areas of Britain [54]. The PAI Programme has delivered: for the re-survey of rural towns to an absolute accuracy of ±0.4 metres root mean square error (RMSE); and for all other 1:2500 scale rural areas to an overall absolute accuracy of ±1.1 metres RMSE.

The completion of the PAI Programme has resulted in considerable improvements to the levels of absolute and relative accuracy within the base maps on the scale 1:2500. For built-up areas within defined rural towns: a relative accuracy of ±0.40 m RMSE, a normal distribution of errors must exist and a maximum error not exceed 0.80 m - this standard is applied to any contiguous area of data; and an absolute accuracy of ±0.40 m RMSE and a normal distribution of errors must exist. This standard is applied to any contiguous area of data as per the following: 95% of points should be in error by no more than ±0.70 m; 99% of points should be in error by no more than ±0.90 m; and no point should be in error by more than 1.20 m.

For outside of built-up areas within defined rural towns and other rural areas: a relative accuracy of ±1.00 m RMSE, a normal distribution of errors must exist and a maximum error not exceed 1.90 m - this standard is applied to any contiguous area of data; and an absolute accuracy of ±1.10 m RMSE and a normal distribution of errors must exist. This standard is applied to any contiguous area of data as per the following: 95% of points should be in error by no more than ±1.90 m; 99% of points should be in error by no more than ±2.40 m; and no point should be in error by more than 3.00 m.

In People’s Republic of China (PRC) the National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation (NASG), as the administrative organization in charge of the surveying and mapping work across China [55], has the following main responsibilities, among others:

1. To arrange and deliver surveying and mapping services for the public and make emergency responses, organize and guide social services of fundamental geographic information, examine and approve key geographic information and data and to publish them upon authorization.

2. To formulate cadastral surveying and mapping plans, technical standards and specifications, and ratify cadastral surveying and mapping results.

3. To organize and manage fundamental surveying and mapping, international and administrative boundary surveying and mapping, cadastral surveying and mapping, and other national level or key surveying and mapping projects, and to establish and manage national surveying and mapping datum and control systems.

4. To formulate laws, regulations and rules of surveying and mapping, formulate development plans for the surveying and mapping undertaking, formulate plans for national fundamental surveying and mapping in collaboration with relevant departments, draw up management policies and technical standards for the surveying and mapping industry and supervise their implementation.

The main laws for geodesy and cartography resources are regulations on the Administration of Surveying and Mapping Results and on the Surveying and Mapping Law. Surveying and Mapping Law is refers to the following topics: Surveying and Mapping Datums and Systems; Basic Surveying and Mapping; Boundary Surveying and Mapping and Other Surveying and Mapping; Qualifications for Surveying and Mapping; Surveying and Mapping Results; Protection of Surveying Markers and Legal Liabilities.

Whereas the Regulations on the Administration of Surveying and Mapping Results are formulated in accordance with the Surveying and Mapping Law and for the purpose of enhancing the administration of surveying and mapping results, safeguarding national security, promoting the use of surveying and mapping results, and meeting the needs for the development of the national economy. The Regulations are applicable to the summarization and submission, keeping and use of surveying and mapping results, and the examination and verification of significant geographic information and data as well as the publishing of such information and data. For the purpose of the Regulations, the surveying and mapping results refer to the data, information, maps and drawings and the relevant technical data, which are created through surveying and mapping. Surveying and mapping results consist of the results that belong to basic surveying and mapping projects and those which do not belong.

In Fundamental Surveying and Mapping Program [56] play a key infrastructure of PRC economy the Geodetic Datum. At the end of 2012, Beidou (COMPASS) navigation satellite system covered the most areas in the Asia-Pacific region and was officially put in commercial operation. Construction and maintenance of the modern Geodetic Datum as reference system for surveying and mapping that is based on GNSS (GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO and COMPASS) have started in some areas in China.

PRC allocates a special fund for basic aerial photogrammetry for creation of Remote Sensing databases. Currently, database owns over 5 million aerial images, covering over 80% of the total land territory of China. Also, China has gradually adopted the important remote sensing image acquisition means such as “ZY-3” surveying & mapping satellite and UAV aerial photogrammetry. “ZY-3” had received a total over of 225TB data.

Program on Basic Scale Topographic Mapping consist of PRC national basic scale topographic map is a full-element topographic map plotted or compiled according to the specifications of surveys, diagrams and scale system published by China. The national basic scale topographic map mainly consists of 11 scales including: 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000, 1:10k, 1:25k, 1:50k, 1:100k, 1:250k, 1:500k and 1:1 million.

However, due to national security concerns, the use of geographic information in China is restricted to entities that obtain a special authorization from the administrative department for surveying and mapping under the State Council [57]. Consequences of the restriction include fines for unauthorized surveys [58], e.g.: lack of geo-tag of information on cameras when the GNSS chip detects a location within China, incorrect alignment of street maps with satellite maps in various applications, and seeming unlawfulness of being created by volunteers mapping efforts (e.g. OpenStreetMap).