Abstract
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), a persistent organochlorine insecticide, has been extensively used in the past for control of agricultural pests and vector borne diseases. The use of HCH has indeed accrued benefits, however the unusual production of the insecticidal isomer; γ-HCH (lindane) and unregulated disposal of HCH muck has created various dumpsites all over the world, leading to serious environmental concerns. HCH isomers have been ranked as possible human carcinogens and endocrine disruptors with proven teratogenic, mutagenic and genotoxic effects, hence making its decontamination mandatory. Efforts in this direction have led to the isolation of various HCH degrading bacteria from the dumpsites, reflecting their role in HCH bioremediation. This review summarizes the problem of environmental persistence of HCH isomers along with their toxicity and possible solutions for their decontamination.
Acknowledgements
The work was supported by grants from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India, under project BT/PR3301/BCE/8/875/11, University of Delhi/Department of Science and Technology Promotion Of University Research and Scientific Excellence DU DST – PURSE grant and National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms (NBAIM) AMAAS/2006-07/NBAIM/CIR and All India Network Project Soil Biodiversity- Biofertilizer (ICAR). N.N., N.S., P.K., H.V., R.K., V.N., P.O., N.K.M., V.G., gratefully acknowledge the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), The University Grants Commission (UGC) New Delhi, NBAIM and the Fulbright Program for providing research fellowships.
References
1. Li YF. Global technical hexachlorocyclohexane usage and its contamination consequences in the environment: from 1948 to 1997. Sci Total Environ 1999;232:121–58.10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00114-XSearch in Google Scholar
2. Bakore N, John PJ, Bhatnagar P. Organochlorine pesticide residues in wheat and drinking water samples from Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Environ Monit Assess 2004;98:381–9.10.1023/B:EMAS.0000038197.76047.83Search in Google Scholar
3. Zhu Y, Liu H, Xi Z, Cheng H, Xu X. Organochlorine pesticides (DDTs and HCHs) in soils from the outskirts of Beijing, China. Chemosphere 2005;60:770–8.10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.04.018Search in Google Scholar
4. Li J, Zhu T, Wang F, Qiu XH, Lin WL. Observation of organochlorine pesticides in the air of the Mt. Everest region. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 2006;63:33–41.10.1016/j.ecoenv.2005.04.001Search in Google Scholar
5. Willet KL, Ulrich EM, Hites RA. Differential toxicity and environmental fates of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Environ Sci Technol 1998;32:2197–207.10.1021/es9708530Search in Google Scholar
6. Lal R, Pandey G, Sharma P, Kumari K, Malhotra S, et al. Biochemistry of microbial degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane and prospects for bioremediation. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2010;74:58–80.10.1128/MMBR.00029-09Search in Google Scholar
7. Slade RE. The gamma-isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane (gammaxane). Chem Ind (London) 1945;40:314–9.Search in Google Scholar
8. Vijgen J. The legacy of Lindane HCH isomer production. A global overview of residue management, formulation and disposal. 2006. Available at: http://www.cluin.org/download/misc/Lindane_Main_Report_DEF20JAN06.pdf.Search in Google Scholar
9. ATSDR. Toxicological Profile for Hexachlorocyclohexanes, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, August, 2005. Available at: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=754&tid=138.Search in Google Scholar
10. Kurihara N. Studies on BHC isomers and related compounds V. Some physiochemical properties of BHC isomers (1). Pes Chem Physiol 1972;2:383–90.Search in Google Scholar
11. de Oliveira RM, Bastos LH, de Oliveira e Dias AE, da Silva SA, Moreira JC. Residual concentration of hexachlorocyclohexane in a contaminated site in Cidade dos Meninos, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, after calcium oxide treatment. Cad Saude Publica 2003;19:447–53.10.1590/S0102-311X2003000200011Search in Google Scholar
12. Concha-Grańa E, Turnes-Carou MI, Muniategui-Lornzo S, Lopez-Mahia P, Prada Rodriguez D, et al. Evaluation of HCH isomers and metabolites in soils, lechates, river water and sediments of a highly contaminated area. Chemosphere 2006;64:588–95.10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.11.011Search in Google Scholar
13. Vega FA, Covelo EF, Andrade ML. Accidental organochlorine pesticide contamination of soil in Porrino, Spain. J Environ Qual 2007;36:272–9.10.2134/jeq2006.0053Search in Google Scholar
14. Jürgen HJ, Roth R. Case study and proposed decontamination steps of the soil and groundwater beneath a closed herbicide plant in Germany. Chemosphere 1989;18:1163–69.10.1016/0045-6535(89)90250-6Search in Google Scholar
15. Jit S, Dadhwal M, Kumari H, Jindal S, Kaur J, et al. Evaluation of hexachlorocyclohexane contamination from the last lindane production plant operating in India. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2011;18:586–9710.1007/s11356-010-0401-4Search in Google Scholar PubMed
16. UNEP. Report of the Conference of the Parties of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants on the work of its fourth meeting. UNEP/POPS/COP.4/38. 8 May 2009.Search in Google Scholar
17. Vijgen J, Abhilash PC, Li YF, Lal R, Forter M, et al. Hexachlorcyclohexane (HCH) as new Stockholm Convention POPs- A global perspective on the management of lindane and its waste isomers. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2011;18:152–62.10.1007/s11356-010-0417-9Search in Google Scholar PubMed
18. Dadhwal M, Singh A, Prakash O, Gupta SK, Kumari K, et al. Proposal of biostimulation for hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH)-decontamination and characterization of culturable bacterial community from high-dose point HCH-contaminated soils. J Appl Microbiol 2009;106:381–92.10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.03982.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
19. Nagata Y, Miyauchi K, Takagi M. Complete analysis of genes and enzymes for γ-hexachlorocyclohexane degradation in Sphingomonas paucimobilis UT26. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 1999;23:380–90.10.1038/sj.jim.2900736Search in Google Scholar PubMed
20. Kumari R, Subudhi S, Suar M, Dhingra G, Raina V, et al. Cloning and characterization of lin genes responsible for the degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers by Sphingomonas paucimobilis strain B90. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002;68:6021–8.10.1128/AEM.68.12.6021-6028.2002Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
21. Senoo K, Wada H. Isolation and identification of an aerobic γ-HCH decomposing bacterium from soil. Soil Sci Plant Nutri 1989;35:79–87.10.1080/00380768.1989.10434739Search in Google Scholar
22. Sahu SK, Patnaik KK, Sharmila M, Sethunathan N. Degradation of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane by a soil bacterium under aerobic conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990;56:3620–2.10.1128/aem.56.11.3620-3622.1990Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
23. Malhotra S, Sharma P, Kumari H, Singh A, Lal R. Localization of HCH catabolic genes (lin genes) in Sphingobium indicum B90A. Indian J Microbiol 2007;47:271–5.10.1007/s12088-007-0050-6Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
24. Nagata Y, Natsui S, Endo R, Ohtsubo Y, Ichikawa N, et al. Genomic organization and genomic structural rearrangements of Sphingobium japonicum UT26, an archetypal γ-hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading bacterium. Enzyme Microb Technol 2011;49:499–508.10.1016/j.enzmictec.2011.10.005Search in Google Scholar PubMed
25. Trantírek L, Hynková K, Nagata Y, Murzin A, Ansorgová A, et al. Reaction mechanism and stereochemistry of γ-hexachlorocyclohexane dehydrochlorinase LinA. J Biol Chem 2001;276:7734–40.10.1074/jbc.M007452200Search in Google Scholar PubMed
26. Nagata Y, Nariya T, Ohtomo R, Fukuda M, Yano K, et al. Cloning and sequencing of a dehalogenase gene encoding an enzyme with hydrolase activity involved in the degradation of γ-hexachlorocyclohexane in Pseudomonas paucimobilis. J Bacteriol 1993;175:6403–10.10.1128/jb.175.20.6403-6410.1993Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
27. Suar M, van der Meer JR, Lawlor K, Holliger C, Lal R. Dynamics of multiple lin gene expression in Sphingomonas paucimobilis B90A in response to different hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Appl Environ Microbiol 2004;70:6650–6.10.1128/AEM.70.11.6650-6656.2004Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
28. Suar M, Dogra C, Raina V, Kohler HP, Poiger T, et al. Enantioselective transformation of α-hexachlorocyclohexane by the dehydrochlorinases LinA1 and LinA2 from the soil bacterium Sphingomonas paucimobilis B90A. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005;71:8514–8.10.1128/AEM.71.12.8514-8518.2005Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
29. Raina V, Rentsch D, Geiger T, Sharma P, Buser HR, et al. New metabolites in the degradation of α- and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH): pentachlorocyclohexenes are hydroxylated to cyclohexenols and cyclohexenediols by the haloalkane dehalogenase LinB from Sphingobium indicum B90A. J Agric Food Chem 2008;56:6594–603.10.1021/jf800465qSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
30. Sharma P, Raina V, Kumari R, Malhotra S, Dogra C, et al. Haloalkane dehalogenase linB is responsible for β- and δ-hexachlorocyclohexane transformation in Sphingobium indicum B90A. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006;72:5720–7.10.1128/AEM.00192-06Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
31. Raina V, Hauser A, Buser HR, Rentsch D, Sharma P, et al. Hydroxylated metabolites of β and δ-hexachlorocyclohexane: bacterial formation, stereochemical configuration, and occurrence in groundwater at a former production site. Environ Sci Technol 2007;41:4292–8.10.1021/es062908gSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
32. Sangwan N, Lata P, Dwivedi V, Singh A, Niharika N, et al. Comparative metagenomic analysis of soil microbial communities across three hexachlorocyclohexane contamination levels. PLoS One 2012;7:e46219. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.004621910.1371/journal.pone.0046219Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
33. Sangwan N, Verma H, Kumar R, Negi V, Lax S, et al. Reconstructing an ancestral genotype of two hexachlorocyclohexane degrading Sphingobium species using metagenomic sequence data. ISME J 2013;8:398–408.10.1038/ismej.2013.153Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
©2014 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin/Boston
