Abstract
This Technical Report compiles and analyzes the current scientific knowledge on herbal medicine and highlights the practical ways for ensuring the safety of herbal preparations and evaluating their claimed efficacy. Emphasis has been given to the methods for standardization of herbal medicine and the ways and means for moving forward to achieve the difficult goal of preparing herbal medicines of consistent quality and effects. Pragmatic approaches have been recommended to overcome the difficulties in (i) protecting intellectual property rights (IPR); (ii) producing safe, potent, standardized, and affordable herbal medicine; and (iii) documenting the knowledge base on herbal medicine in an easily accessible format.
Project Year: 2005, Project Code: 2005-034-1-300
References
1. British Medical Association. Complementary Medicine New Approaches to Good Practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1993).Search in Google Scholar
2. R. C. Kessler, R. B. Davis, D. A. Foster, M. I. Van Rompay, E. E. Walters, S. A. Wilkey, T. J. Kaptchuk, D. M. Eisenberg. Ann. Intern. Med. 135, 262 (2001).10.7326/0003-4819-135-4-200108210-00011Search in Google Scholar
3. doi:10.1006/pmed.2002.1057, A. H. MacLennan, D. H. Wilson, A. W. Taylor. Prev. Med. 35, 166 (2002).Search in Google Scholar
4. doi:10.1089/acm.1998.4.1-17, C. M. Cassidy. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 4, 17 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
5. A. Bensoussan, S. P. Myers. Towards a Safer Choice: The Practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Australia, Faculty of Health, University of Western Sydney, Macarthur (1996).Search in Google Scholar
6. TDR 2005. Operational Guidance: Information Needed to Support Clinical Trials of Herbal Products, UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) (2005).Search in Google Scholar
7. doi:10.1067/mcp.2001.120249, E. Ernst. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 70, 497 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
8. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00999.x, E. Ernst. J. Intern. Med. 252, 107 (2002).Search in Google Scholar
9. doi:10.1016/S0165-6147(00)01972-6, E. Ernst. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 23, 136 (2002).Search in Google Scholar
10. P. A. G. M. De Smet, R. F. Chandler, P. P. H. But, K. Keller (Eds.). Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs: Toxicological Outlook on the Quality Assurance of Herbal Medicines, pp. 1-72, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1992).10.1007/978-3-642-49340-9_1Search in Google Scholar
11. "Quality of herbal remedies", in The Rules Governing Medicinal Products in the European Community, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, III, 31 (1989).Search in Google Scholar
12. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)80091-1, T. Y. K. Chan, J. C. N. Chan, B. Tomlinson, J. A. J. H. Critchley. Lancet 342, 1532 (1993).Search in Google Scholar
13. S. Brown, R. Ede. Br. J. Hosp. Med. 53, 469 (1996).10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830060007001Search in Google Scholar
14. doi:10.1001/jama.268.24.3430, H. H. Schaumburg, A. Berger. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 268, 3430 (1992).Search in Google Scholar
15. doi:10.1056/NEJM199509213331217, E. O. Espinoza, M.-J. Mann, B. Bleasdell. N. Engl. J. Med. 333, 803 (1995).Search in Google Scholar
16. doi:10.1056/NEJM199809173391214, R. J. Ko. N. Engl. J. Med. 339, 847 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
17. G. M. Woolf, L. M. Petrovic, S. E. Rojter, S. Wainwright, F. G. Villamil, W. N. Katkov, P. Michieletti, I. R. Wanless, R. Stermitz, J. J. Beck, J. M. Vierling. Ann. Intern. Med. 121, 729 (1994).Search in Google Scholar
18. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)92984-2, J.-L. Vanherweghem, C. Tielemans, D. Abramowicz, M. Depierreux, R. Vanhaelen-Fastre, R. Vanhaelen, M. Vanhaelen, M. Drawta, C. Richard, D. Vendervelde, D. Verbeelen, M. Jadoul. Lancet 341, 387 (1993).Search in Google Scholar
19. T. Y. K. Chan, J. A. J. H. Critchley. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 15, 5 (1996).10.1177/096032719601500102Search in Google Scholar
20. T. J. Kaptchuk. Ann. Intern. Med. 122, 636 (1995).10.7326/0003-4819-122-8-199504150-00032Search in Google Scholar
21. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1746.2001.02309.x, G. J. Park, S. P. Mann, M. C. Ngu. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 16, 115 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
22. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90404-5, P. P. But, D. J. Atherton, M. H. Rustin, J. Brostoff. Lancet 341, 637 (1993).Search in Google Scholar
23. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90964-4, M. Vanhaelen, R. Vanhaelen-Fastre, P. But, J.-L. Vanherweghem. Lancet 343, 174 (1994).Search in Google Scholar
24. M. Depierreux, B. Van Damme, K. V. Houte, J.-L. Vanherweghem. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 24, 172 (1994).10.1016/S0272-6386(12)80178-8Search in Google Scholar
25. doi:10.1038/ki.1994.220, J.-P. Cosyns, M. Jadoul, J.-P. Squifflet, J.-F. De Plaen, D. Ferluga, C. V. Y. de Strihou. Kidney Int. 45, 1680 (1994).Search in Google Scholar
26. P. A. G. M. De Smet, P. A. G. M. De Smet, K. Keller, R. Hansel, R. F. Chandler (Eds.). Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs, Aristolochia Species, pp. 79-89, Springer Verlag, Berlin (1992).10.1007/978-3-642-49340-9_3Search in Google Scholar
27. doi:10.1089/acm.1998.4.1-9, L. J. Vanherwegham. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 4, 9 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
28. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(94)92786-3, J.-P. Cosyns, M. Jadoul, J.-P. Squifflet, P.-J. Van Cangh, C. V. Y. de Strihou. Lancet 344, 188 (1994).Search in Google Scholar
29. Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) (Australia). Chinese herbal medicines in Australia found to contain Aristolochia <http://www.tga.gov.au/> (2003).Search in Google Scholar
30. ICDRA. International Conference on Drug Regulatory Authorities, World Health Organization (1986).Search in Google Scholar
31. ICDRA. 6th International Conference on Drug Regulatory Authorities, World Health Organization (1991).Search in Google Scholar
32. ICDRA. 8th International Conference on Drug Regulatory Authorities, World Health Organization, Bahrain, 10-13 Nov. (1996).Search in Google Scholar
33. ICDRA. 9th International Conference on Drug Regulatory Authorities, World Health Organization, Berlin, 25-29 April (1999).Search in Google Scholar
34. G. Shia, B. Noller, G. Burford. "Safety issues and policies", in Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Policy and Public Health Perspectives, G. Bodeker, G. Burford (Eds.), Chap. 4, pp. 83-98, Imperial College Press, London (2007).10.1142/9781860949135_0005Search in Google Scholar
35. Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) (Australia). <http://www.tga.gov.au/cm/cm.htm> (2004).Search in Google Scholar
36. TDR. Operational Guidance: Information Needed to Support Clinical Trials of Herbal Products, UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) (2005).Search in Google Scholar
37. P. F. Ricci. Environmental and Health Risk Assessment and Management: Principles and Practices, Springer, Dordrecht (2006).Search in Google Scholar
38. Standards Association of Australia. Risk Management AS/NZS, p. 4360, Strathfield, NSW (1999).Search in Google Scholar
39. M. R. Sim, J. J. McNeil. Med. J. Aust. 170, 372 (1999).10.5694/j.1326-5377.1999.tb139170.xSearch in Google Scholar
40. EnHealth. Environmental Health Risk Assessment: Guidelines for Assessing Human Health Risks from Environmental Hazards, p. 227, Department of Health and Aged Care and enHealth Council, Canberra (2002).Search in Google Scholar
41. USEPA. Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment, p. 188, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (1998).Search in Google Scholar
42. Aristotle. Organon, in Masterpieces of World Philosophy, N. Magill (Ed.), p. 137, George Allen & Unwin, London (1963).Search in Google Scholar
43. C. H. Hennekens, J. E. Buring. "Design strategies in epidemiologic research", in Epidemiology in Medicine, S. L. Mayrent (Ed.), p. 16, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia (1987).Search in Google Scholar
44. S. Plantadosis. In Clinical TrialsA Methodologic Perspective, Plantadosis (Ed.), p. 9, Wiley-Interscience, New York (2005).10.1002/0471740136Search in Google Scholar
45. R. H. Fletcher, S. W. Fletcher. N. Eng. J. Med. 301, 180 (1979).10.1056/NEJM197907263010403Search in Google Scholar
46. S. Plantadosis. In Clinical TrialsA Methodologic Perspective, Plantadosis (Ed.), p. 82, Wiley-Interscience, New York (2005).10.1002/0471740136Search in Google Scholar
47. doi:10.1002/9780470057438.ch2, M. Pawa. In Complimentary Therapy and the Management of Diabetes and Vascular DiseaseA Matter of Balance, P. T. Dunning (Ed.), p. 17, John Wiley, Chichester (2006).Search in Google Scholar
48. O. Akerele. Herbalgram 28, 13 (1993).10.1353/sais.1993.0034Search in Google Scholar
49. J. Benedum. In Phytopharmaka IV. Forschung und Klinische Anwendung, D. Loew, N. E. Rietbrock (Eds.), p. 3, Darmstadt, Steinkopff (1998).Search in Google Scholar
50. B. Patwardhan, D. Warude, P. Pushpangadan, N. Bhatt. Evidence-Based Complem. Altern. Med. 2, 465 (2005).10.1093/ecam/neh140Search in Google Scholar
51. WHO. Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005. <http://www.who.int/medicines/library/trm/trm_stat_eng.pdfS> (2002).Search in Google Scholar
52. J. Gruenwald. Herbalgram 34, 61 (1995).10.1017/S0012217300049301Search in Google Scholar
53. doi:10.1016/S0091-2182(99)00042-7, L. Lee. J. Nurse-Midwifery 44, 253 (1999).Search in Google Scholar
54. doi:10.1002/nur.4770140505, J. S. Brown, S. A. Marcy. Res. Nurs. Health 14, 339 (1991).Search in Google Scholar
55. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2003.10.036, S. Bent, R. Ko. Am. J. Med. 116, 478 (2004).Search in Google Scholar
56. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.019, I. A. Khan. Life Sci. 78, 2033 (2006).Search in Google Scholar
57. doi:10.1056/NEJM200006083422301, J. L. Nortier, M.-C. M. Martinez, H. H. Schmeiser, V. M. Arlt, C. A. Bieler, M. Petein, F. Depierreux, L. De Pauw, D. Abramowicz, P. Vereerstraeten, J. L. Vanherweghem. N. Engl. J. Medicine 342, 1686 (2000).Search in Google Scholar
58. doi:10.2165/00002018-200023050-00001, H. L. Koh, S. O. Woo. Drug Safety 23, 351 (2000).Search in Google Scholar
59. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.014, V. S. Srinivasan. Life Sci. 78, 2039 (2006).Search in Google Scholar
60. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2006.11.011, G. Ulrich-Merzenich, H. Zeitler, D. Jobst, D. Panek, H. Vetter, H. Wagner. Phytomedicine 14, 70 (2007).Search in Google Scholar
61. EMEA. Position paper on the risks associated with the use of herbal products containing Aristolochia species. EMEA/HMPWP/23/00 (2000).Search in Google Scholar
62. doi:10.1007/s002280000194, E. Ernst. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 56, 523 (2000).Search in Google Scholar
63. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2796.2002.00999.x, E. Ernst. J. Int. Med. 252, 107 (2002).Search in Google Scholar
64. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.20.2192, L. C. Winslow, D. J. Kroll. Arch. Intern. Med. 158, 2192 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
65. M. Rotblatt, I. Ziment. Evidence-Based Herbal Medicine, Hanley & Belfus, Philadelphia (2002).Search in Google Scholar
66. M. Blumenthal (Ed.). The Complete German Commission E Monographs. Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines, American Botanical Council, Austin, TX (1997).Search in Google Scholar
67. CDER/USFDA. Guidance for Industry, Botanical Drug Products, draft guidance, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research/U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2000).Search in Google Scholar
68. EMEA. Guideline on Specifications: Test Procedures and Acceptance Criteria for Herbal Drugs, Herbal Drug Preparations and Herbal Medicinal Products/Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products, European Medicines Agency, London, EMEA/CPMP/QWP/2820/00 Rev. 1 and (EMEA/CVMP/815/00), Rev. 1 (2006).Search in Google Scholar
69. The 2002 United States Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary, USP 25 NF 19/National Formulary 20, Rockville, MD, U.S. Pharmacopoeial Convention, Inc. (2002).Search in Google Scholar
70. Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, English ed., The Pharmacopoeia Commission of PRC, Beijing (2000).Search in Google Scholar
71. doi:10.1007/s00216-002-1265-3, C. W. Huie. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 373, 23 (2002).Search in Google Scholar
72. doi:10.1016/S0165-9936(99)00185-5, V. Camel. Trends Anal. Chem. 19, 229 (2000).Search in Google Scholar
73. doi:10.1002/pca.954, B. Kaufmann, S. Rudaz, S. Cherkaoui, J.-L. Veuthey, P. Christen. Phytochem. Anal. 18, 70 (2007).Search in Google Scholar
74. doi:10.1002/1615-9314(20011101)24:10/11<865::AID-JSSC865>3.0.CO;2-U, A. Brachet, S. Rudaz, L. Mateus, P. Christen, J.-L. Veuthey. J. Separation Sci. 24, 865 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
75. doi:10.1007/BF02492690, B. Kaufmann, P. Christen, J.-L. Veuthey. Chromatographia 54, 394 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
76. doi:10.1039/a907244f, V. Fernandez-Perez, M. M. Jimenez-Carmona, M. D. L. De Castro. Analyst 125, 481 (2000).Search in Google Scholar
77. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(99)00703-7, M. M. Jimenez-Carmona, J. L. Ubera, M. D. L. de Castro. J. Chromatogr., A 855, 625 (1999).Search in Google Scholar
78. doi:10.1021/jf980437e, A. Basile, M. M. Jimenez-Carmona, A. A. Clifford. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 5205 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
79. V. B. Guliyeva, M. Gulb, A. Yildirima. J. Chromatogr., B 812, 291 (2004).Search in Google Scholar
80. doi:10.1016/S0928-3420(99)80032-9, K. Hostettmann, J. L. Wolfender. "Rapid determination on plant glycosides by LC/MS and LC/NMR", in Advances in Plant Glycosides, Chemistry and Biology, C. R. Yang, O. E. Tanaka (Eds.), p. 233, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1999).Search in Google Scholar
81. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(97)00103-9, P. S. Belton, I. J. Colquhoun, E. K. Kemsley, I. Delgadillo, P. Roma, M. J. Dennis, M. Sharman, E. Holmes, J. K. Nicholson, M. Spraul. Food Chem. 61, 207 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
82. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.06.015, M. Frederich, Y. H. Choi, L. Angenot, G. Harnischfeger, A. W. M. Lefeber, R. Verpoorte. Phytochemistry 65, 1993 (2004).Search in Google Scholar
83. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.01.019, H. K. Choi, Y. H. Choi, M. Verberne, A. W. M. Lefeber, C. Erkelens, R. Verpoorte. Phytochemistry 65, 857 (2004).Search in Google Scholar
84. P. J. Hylands, J. K. Nicholson, E. Holmes, M. J. Dunn. U.S. patent 6806090 (2004).Search in Google Scholar
85. doi:10.1016/S0929-693X(03)00274-4, P. Mionodies, P. Pommier, E. Moulene, K. Retornaz, N. Prost, L. Dehoro. Arch. Pediatrics 10, 619 (2003).Search in Google Scholar
86. Anon. General Guidelines for Methodologies on Research and Evaluation of Traditional Medicine, p. 4, World Health Organization, Geneva (2000).Search in Google Scholar
87. doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2004.11.044, A. T. Elamthuruthya, C. R. Shah, T. A. Khan, P. A. Tatke, S. Y. Gabhe. J. Pharm. Biomed Anal. 37, 937 (2005).Search in Google Scholar
88. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2005.10.007, G. Biringanine, M.-T. Chirelli, M. Faes, P. Duez. Talanta 69, 418 (2006).Search in Google Scholar
89. doi:10.1002/jps.1035, E. A. Abouarshed, I. A. Khan. J. Pharm. Sci. 90, 817 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
90. doi:10.1023/A:1016472531527, H. Elsohly, E. M. Croom, M. A. Elsohly. Pharm. Res. 4, 258 (1987).Search in Google Scholar
91. doi:10.1002/jps.1124, H. Ganzora, E. Bedin, I. A. Khan. J. Pharm. Sci. 90, 1752 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
92. M. Ganzora, I. A. Khan. Planta Med. 67, 778 (2001).10.1055/s-2001-18346Search in Google Scholar
93. doi:10.1021/jf020049j, R. B. Anna, C. B. Maria, L. Diamanto, F. V. Franco. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50, 5016 (2002).Search in Google Scholar
94. G. M. Hanna. 11th Annual FDA Science Forum, Board Number: I-14, April 27 (2005).Search in Google Scholar
95. L. Wang, F. S. C. Lee, X. Wang. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 40, 83 (2007).10.1016/j.lwt.2005.08.011Search in Google Scholar
96. Romanian Pharmacopoeia X, Chap. IX, Ed, Medicala, Bucuresti (1993).Search in Google Scholar
97. British Pharmacopoeia, Vol. IV, Appendix XVI B, A356-A363 (2005).Search in Google Scholar
98. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01237.x, A. Ozbey, U. Uygun. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 42, 380 (2007).Search in Google Scholar
99. R. O. B. Wijesekera (Ed.). The Medicinal Plant Industry, CRC Press, Boca Raton (1991).Search in Google Scholar
100. doi:10.1007/s00128-007-9063-4, V. Rai, P. Kakkar, C. Misra, S. K. Ojha, N. Srivastava, S. Mehrotra. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 79, 269 (2007).Search in Google Scholar
101. H. Wagner. In Handbook of Medicinal Plants, Z. Yaniv, U. E. Bachrach (Eds.), p. 3, Chap. 21, Haworth Medical Press, Binghamton (2001).Search in Google Scholar
102. doi:10.1590/S0103-50532003000200019, V. G. Zuin, J. H. Yariwake, F. M. Lancas. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 14, 304 (2003).Search in Google Scholar
103. V. G. Zuin, A L. Lopes, J. H. Yarawake, F. Augusto. J. Chromatogr., A 1056, 21 (2004).10.1016/S0021-9673(04)01278-6Search in Google Scholar
104. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2005.03.023, S. Razic, A. Onjia, S. Dogo, L. Slavkovic, A. Popovic. Talanta 67, 233 (2005).Search in Google Scholar
105. doi:10.1016/j.microc.2006.05.008, S. S. Razic, S. M. Dogo, L. J. Slavkovic. Microchem. J. 84, 93 (2006).Search in Google Scholar
106. doi:10.2298/JSC0610095R, S. Razic, S. Dogo, L. Slavkovic. J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 71, 1095 (2006).Search in Google Scholar
107. doi:10.1016/S0021-9150(98)00094-X, V. M. Dirsch, A. K. Kiemer, H. Wagner, A. M. Vollmar. Atherosclerosis 139, 333 (1998).Search in Google Scholar
108. V. M. Dirsch, A. L. Gerbes, A. M. Vollmar. Mol. Pharmacol. 53, 402 (1998).10.1124/mol.53.3.402Search in Google Scholar
109. S. Klingelhofer. Isolierung und Charakterisierung antiinflammatorischer Oxylipine aus Blattextrakten von Urtica dioica L., Ph.D. Thesis, Kiel, Germany, Christian-Albrechts-Universitat, pp. 1-3 and 80 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
110. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2004.02.003, M. Kaszkin, K. F. Beck, E. Koch, C. Erdelmeier, S. Kusch, J. Pfeilschifter, D. Loew. Phytomedicine 11, 585 (2004).Search in Google Scholar
111. W. E Mueller. St. John's Wort and its Active Principles in Depression and Anxiety, Birkhauser, Basel (2005).10.1007/b137619Search in Google Scholar
112. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.033, R. Verpoorte, Y. H. Choi, H. K. Kim. J. Ethnopharmacol. 100, 53 (2005).Search in Google Scholar
113. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00060, E. M. Williamson. Phytomedicine 8, 401 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
114. API (Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India). Department of Health, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi, p. 45 (1989).Search in Google Scholar
115. P. P. H. But, T. Kimura, J.-X. Guo, C. K. Sung, B. H. Han (Eds.). International Collation of Traditional and Folk Medicine, p. 232, World Scientific, Singapore (1997).Search in Google Scholar
116. H. M. Chang, P. P. H. But (Eds.). Pharmacology and Applications of Chinese Materia Medica, Vols. I and II, S.-C. Yao, L.-L. Wang, S. C.-S. Yeung (Translators), World Scientific, Philadelphia (2001).Search in Google Scholar
117. V. K. Gupta. Traditional Knowledge Digital Library, Sub-Regional Experts Meeting in Asia on Intangible Cultural Heritage: Safeguarding and Inventory-Making Methodologies, Bangkok (2005). <http://www.accu.or.jp/ich/en/pdf/c2005subreg_ Ind1.pdf>.Search in Google Scholar
118. JSHM. Japanese Standards for Herbal Medicines, p. 361, Yakuji Nippo, Tokyo (1993).Search in Google Scholar
119. Jiangsu Institute of Modern Medicine. Zhong Yao Da Ci Dian (Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica), Vols. 1-3, p. 3518, Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publications, Shanghai (1977).Search in Google Scholar
120. L. D. Kapoor. CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, Herbal Reference Library, p. 416, CRC Press, Boca Raton (2001).Search in Google Scholar
121. K. M. Nadkarni. Indian Materia Medica, p. 414, Popular Prakashan, Bombay (1976).Search in Google Scholar
122. T. C. Lantz. Examining the Potential Role of Co-operatives in the Ethical Commercialisation of Medicinal Plants, Plant Conservation Intellectual Property Rights, Ethics, and the Devil's Club (Oplopanax Horridus). Occasional Papers 3, BC Institute for Co-operative Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C., Canada, 27 (2001).Search in Google Scholar
123. G. Tu (Ed.). Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (English ed., 1992), p. 202, Guangdong Science and Technology Press, Beijing (1992).Search in Google Scholar
124. United Nations. Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Treaty Series UN, New York, Vol. 1760, I-30619, 143 (1993).Search in Google Scholar
125. Online Archive of American Folk Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles. <http://www.folkmed.ucla.edu/>.Search in Google Scholar
126. Phytotherapies database. <http://www.phytotherapies.org/>.Search in Google Scholar
127. Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database. <http://www.naturaldatabase.com/>.Search in Google Scholar
128. HerbMed. <http://www.herbmed.org/HerbMed>.Search in Google Scholar
129. <http://www.cintcm.com/index.htm>.Search in Google Scholar
130. doi:10.1016/S0895-4356(03)00003-9, M. Van Dongen, E. Van Rossum, A. Kessels, H. Sielhorst. P. Knipschild. J. Clin. Epidem. 56, 367 (2003).Search in Google Scholar
131. AGRICOLA database, U.S. Department of Agriculture. <http://agricola.nal.usda.gov>.Search in Google Scholar
132. AltHealth Watch database. <http://www.epnet.com>.Search in Google Scholar
133. MANTIS database. <http://www.healthindex.com/>.Search in Google Scholar
134. MICROMEDEX database. <http://www.micromedex.com/products/altmeddex/>.Search in Google Scholar
135. Computer Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects. <http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/>.Search in Google Scholar
136. Cochrane Collaboration. <http://www.cochrane.org/>.Search in Google Scholar
137. EMBASE, Elsevier. <http://www.embase.com/>.Search in Google Scholar
138. NAPRALERT, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago. <http://napralert.org/>.Search in Google Scholar
139. International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements (IBIDS) database. <http://ods.od.nih.gov/Health_Information/IBIDS.aspx>.Search in Google Scholar
140. European Scientific Co-operative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP) database. <http://www.escop.com/phytonet.htm>.Search in Google Scholar
141. doi:10.1007/s002280050674, B. K. Vogler, M. H. Pittler, E. Ernst. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 55, 567 (1999).Search in Google Scholar
142. S. I. Hakky. U.S. Patent 4826684 (1989). <http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4826684.html>.Search in Google Scholar
143. S. Y. Lee. U.S. Patent 6692777 (2004). <http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6692777.html>.Search in Google Scholar
144. R. Glaser. U.S. Patent 20070059384 (2007). <http://www.freepatentsonline.com/20070059384.html>.Search in Google Scholar
145. WHO. WHO Monographs of Selected Medicinal Plants, Vol. 1, p. 289, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (1999).Search in Google Scholar
146. WHO. WHO Monographs of Selected Medicinal Plants, Vol. 2, p. 351, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (2002).Search in Google Scholar
© 2013 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston