1932

Abstract

The thermal environment is the most important ecological factor determining the growth, development, and productivity of domestic animals. Routes of energy exchange (sensible heat and latent heat) between animals and their environment are greatly influenced by body weight, fat deposition, hair-coat properties, functional activity, and number of sweat glands, as well as the presence or absence of anatomical respiratory countercurrent heat exchange capability. Differences in these anatomical features across species have led to specialization of heat exchange. Thermal plasticity and degree of acclimation are critical factors determining the ability of animals to respond to environmental change. Increases in productive capability of domestic animals can compromise thermal acclimation and plasticity, requiring greater investments in housing systems that reduce variability of the thermal environment. The combination of steadily increasing metabolic heat production as domestic animal productivity increases and a rising world temperature poses ongoing and future challenges to maintaining health and well-being of domestic animals.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110659
2015-02-16
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/animal/3/1/annurev-animal-022114-110659.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110659&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Nakamura K, Morrison F. 2008. A thermosensory pathway that controls body temperature. Nat. Neurosci. 11:62–71 [Google Scholar]
  2. Seebacher F. 2009. Responses to temperature variation: integration of thermoregulation and metabolism in vertebrates. J. Exp. Biol. 212:2885–91 [Google Scholar]
  3. Moen AN. 1973. Wildlife Ecology: An Analytical Approach San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co458 pp
  4. Gebremedhin KG, Lee CN, Hillman PE, Brown-Brandl TM. 2011. Body temperature and behavioral activities of four breeds of heifers in shade and full sun. Appl. Eng. Agric. 27:6999–1006 [Google Scholar]
  5. Hillman PE, Scott NR, van Tienhoven A. 1982. Vasomotion in chicken foot: dual innervation of arteriovenous anastomoses. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 242:5R582–90 [Google Scholar]
  6. Muiruri HK, Harrison PC. 1991. Effect of peripheral foot cooling on metabolic-rate and thermoregulation of fed and fasted chicken hens in a hot environment. Poult. Sci. 70:174–79 [Google Scholar]
  7. Okelo RO, Carr LE, Harrison PC, Douglass LW, Byrd VE et al. 2003. Effectiveness of a novel method to reduce heat stress in broilers: a cool roost system. Trans. ASABE 46:61675–83 [Google Scholar]
  8. Muiruri HK, Harrison PC, Gonyou HW. 1991. The use of water-cooled roosts by hens for thermoregulation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 28:4333–39 [Google Scholar]
  9. Reilly WM, Koelkebeck KW, Harrison PC. 1991. Performance evaluation of heat-stressed commercial broilers provided water-cooled floor perches. Poult. Sci. 70:1699–703 [Google Scholar]
  10. Muiruri HK, Harrison PC. 1991. Effect of roost temperature on performance of chickens in hot ambient environments. Poult. Sci. 70:112253–58 [Google Scholar]
  11. Olsen AW, Dybkjaer L, Simonsen HB. 2001. Behaviour of growing pigs kept in pens with outdoor runs. II. Temperature regulatory behaviour, comfort behaviour and dunging preferences. Livest. Prod. Sci. 69:3265–78 [Google Scholar]
  12. Ingram DL. 1965. Evaporative cooling in pig. Nature 207:4995415–16 [Google Scholar]
  13. Berman A. 2004. Tissue and external insulation estimates and their effects on prediction of energy requirements and of heat stress. J. Dairy Sci. 87:51400–12 [Google Scholar]
  14. da Silva RG, Maia ASC. 2013. Principles of Animal Biometeorology New York: Springer
  15. Timmons MB, Hillman PE. 1993. Partitional heat losses in heat stress poultry as affected by wind speed. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. Livest. Environ., Coventry, UK, July 6–9, pp. 265–72. St. Joseph, Mich.: Am. Soc. Agric. Biol. Eng
  16. Mitchell MA. 1986. The effects of air movement upon respiratory evaporative heat loss from the domestic fowl at high ambient temperatures. J. Physiol. 378:72P [Google Scholar]
  17. Dmi’el R, Robertshaw D. 1983. The control of panting and sweating in the black Bedouin goat: a comparison of two modes of imposing a heat load. Physiol. Zool. 56:3404–11 [Google Scholar]
  18. Gatenby RM. 1980. Evaporimeter measuring sweat rate of cattle outdoors. J. Therm. Biol. 5:121–27 [Google Scholar]
  19. Yousef MK. 1985. Physiological adaptations of less well-known types of livestock in arid zones: donkeys. Stress Physiology in Livestock. Volume II: Ungulates Yousef MK. 81–97 Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press [Google Scholar]
  20. Blackshaw JK, Blackshaw AW. 1994. Heat stress in cattle and the effect of shade on production and behavior: a review. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 34:285–95 [Google Scholar]
  21. Maia ASC, da Silva RG, Battiston Loureiro CM. 2005. Sensible and latent heat loss from the body surface of Holstein cows in a tropical environment. Int. J. Biometeorol. 50:117–22 [Google Scholar]
  22. Ferguson KA, Dowling DF. 1955. The function of cattle sweat glands. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 6:640–44 [Google Scholar]
  23. McDowell RE, Lee DHK, Fohrman MH. 1954. The measurement of water evaporation from limited areas of a normal body surface. J. Anim. Sci. 13:2405–16 [Google Scholar]
  24. Hodgson DR, McCutcheon LJ, Byrd SK, Brown WS, Bayly WM et al. 1993. Dissipation of metabolic heat in the horse during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:31161–70 [Google Scholar]
  25. Rai AK, Mehta BS, Gour D, Singh M. 1979. Sweating in sheep and goats. Ind. J. Anim. Sci. 49:7546–48 [Google Scholar]
  26. da Silva RG, Starling JMC. 2003. Cutaneous and respiratory evaporation rates of sheep in hot environments. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 32:61956–61 [Google Scholar]
  27. Morrison SR, Bond TE, Heitman HJ. 1967. Skin and lung moisture loss from swine. Trans. ASABE 10:50691–92 [Google Scholar]
  28. Huynh TTT, Aarnink AJA, Gerrits WJJ, Heetkamp MJH, Canh TT et al. 2005. Thermal behavior of growing pigs in response to high temperature and humidity. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 91:1–16 [Google Scholar]
  29. Renaudeau D. 2005. Effects of short-term exposure to high ambient temperature and relative humidity on thermoregulatory responses of European (Large White) and Caribbean (Creole) restrictively-fed growing pigs. Anim. Res. 54:281–93 [Google Scholar]
  30. Arad Z, Marder J. 1982. Comparative thermoregulation of four breeds of fowls (Gallus domesticus), exposed to a gradual increase of ambient temperatures. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 72:1179–84 [Google Scholar]
  31. Gebremedhin KG, Lee CN, Hillman PE, Collier RJ. 2010. Physiological responses of dairy cows during extended solar exposure. Trans. ASABE 53:1239–47 [Google Scholar]
  32. McArthur AJ. 1987. Thermal interaction between animal and microclimate: a comprehensive model. J. Theor. Biol. 126:2203–38 [Google Scholar]
  33. Hillman PE, Gebremedhin KG, Parkhurst AM, Fuquay J, Willard ST. 2001. Evaporative and convective cooling of cows in a hot and humid environment. Proc. 6th Int. Symp. Livest. Environ., Louisville, KY, May 21–23, pp. 343–50. St. Joseph, Mich.: Am Soc. Agric. Biol. Eng
  34. Maia ASC, da Silva RG, Bertipaglia ECA. 2005. Environmental and genetic variation of the effective radiative properties of the coat of Holstein cows under tropical conditions. Livest. Prod. Sci. 92:307–15 [Google Scholar]
  35. Collier RJ, Collier JL, Rhoads RP, Baumgard LH. 2008. Invited review: genes involved in the bovine heat stress response. J. Dairy Sci. 91:2445–54 [Google Scholar]
  36. Jiang M, Gebremedhin KG, Albright LD. 2005. Simulation of skin temperature and sensible and latent heat losses through fur layer. Trans. ASABE 48:2767–73 [Google Scholar]
  37. Gebremedhin KG, Hillman PE, Lee CN, Collier RJ, Willard ST et al. 2008. Sweating rates of dairy cows and beef heifers in hot conditions. Trans. ASABE 51:62167–78 [Google Scholar]
  38. Finch VA. 1986. Body temperature in beef cattle: its control and relevance to production in the tropics. J. Anim. Sci. 62:2531–42 [Google Scholar]
  39. Cena K, Monteith JL. 1975. Transfer processes in animal coats. 3. Water-vapor diffusion. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 188:1093413–23 [Google Scholar]
  40. Kimmel E, Arkin H, Broday D, Berman A. 1991. A model of evaporative cooling in a wetted hide. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 49:3227–41 [Google Scholar]
  41. Hillman PE, Lee CN, Willard ST. 2005. Thermoregulatory responses associated with lying and standing in heat-stressed dairy cows. Trans. ASABE 48:2795–801 [Google Scholar]
  42. Brouk MJ, Smith JF, Harner JP III. 2003. Effect of sprinkling frequency and airflow on respiration rate, body surface temperature and body temperature of heat stressed dairy cattle. Proc. Fifth Int. Dairy Hous., Fort Worth, TX, Jan. 29–31, pp. 263–68. St. Joseph, Mich.: Am. Soc. Agric. Biol. Eng
  43. Hillman PE, Lee CN, Carpenter JR, Baek KS, Parkhurst A. 2001. Impact of hair color on thermoregulation of dairy cows to direct sunlight. Presented at ASABE Annu. Meet., Paper No. 014031, St. Joseph, MI
  44. Robertshaw D. 2006. Mechanisms for the control of respiratory evaporative heat loss in panting animals. J. Appl. Physiol. 101:664–68 [Google Scholar]
  45. Hales JR, Webster ME. 1967. Respiratory function during thermal tachypnea in sheep. J. Physiol. 190:241–60 [Google Scholar]
  46. Bernabucci U, Lacetera N, Baumgard LH, Rhoads RP, Ronchi B, Nardone A. 2010. Metabolic and hormonal acclimation to heat stress in domesticated ruminants. Animal 4:1167–83 [Google Scholar]
  47. Maia ASC, da Silva RG, Loureiro CMB. 2008. Latent heat loss of Holstein cows in a tropical environment: a prediction model. Rev. Bras. Zootec 37:10 doi:10.1590/S1516-35902008001000018 [Google Scholar]
  48. Gebremedhin KG, Porter WP, Cramer CO. 1983. Quantitative analysis of the heat-exchange through the fur layer of Holstein calves. Trans. ASABE 26:1188–93 [Google Scholar]
  49. Gebremedhin KG. 1987. A model of sensible heat transfer across the boundary-layer of animal hair coat. J. Therm. Biol. 12:15–10 [Google Scholar]
  50. Gebremedhin KG, Ni H, Hillman PE. 1997. Modeling temperature profile and heat flux through irradiated fur layer. Trans. ASABE 40:51441–47 [Google Scholar]
  51. McGovern RE, Bruce JM. 2000. A model of the thermal balance for cattle in hot conditions. J. Agric. Eng. Res. 77:181–92 [Google Scholar]
  52. Gebremedhin KG, Wu B. 2001. A model of evaporative cooling of wet skin surface and fur layer. J. Therm. Biol. 26:6537–45 [Google Scholar]
  53. Gebremedhin KG, Wu BX. 2002. Simulation of sensible and latent heat losses from wet-skin surface and fur layer. J. Therm. Biol. 27:4291–97 [Google Scholar]
  54. Gebremedhin KG. 2012. Heat stress and evaporative cooling. Environmental Physiology of Livestock Collier RJ, Collier JL. 35–48 Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons [Google Scholar]
  55. Bertipaglia ECA, da Silva RG, Maia ASC. 2005. Fertility and hair coat characteristics of Holstein cows in a tropical environment. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 2:187–94 [Google Scholar]
  56. Berman A, Volcani R. 1961. Seasonal and regional variations in coat characteristics of dairy cattle. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 12:528–38 [Google Scholar]
  57. McArthur AJ. 1981. Thermal insulation and heat loss from animals. Environmental Aspects of Housing for Animal Production Clark JA. 37–60 London: Butterworths [Google Scholar]
  58. da Silva RG, La Scala N Jr, Tonhati H. 2003. Radiative properties of the skin and haircoat of cattle and other animals. Trans. ASABE 46:3913–18 [Google Scholar]
  59. Façanha DAE, da Silva RG, Maia ASC, Guilhermino MM, Vasconcelos AM. 2010. Variação anual de características morfológicas e da temperatura de superfície do pelame de vacas da raça Holandesa em ambiente semiárido. Rev. Bras. Zootec. 39:4837–44 [Google Scholar]
  60. Seebacher F, Grigg GC. 2001. Changes in heart rate are important for thermoregulation in the varanid lizard, Varanus varius. J. Comp. Physiol. B 171:395–400 [Google Scholar]
  61. Morrison SF, Nakamura K, Madden CJ. 2008. Central control of thermogenesis in mammals. Exp. Physiol. 93:773–97 [Google Scholar]
  62. Bauman DE, Currie WB. 1980. Partitioning of nutrients during pregnancy and lactation: a review of mechanisms involving homeostasis and homeorhesis. J. Dairy Sci. 63:1514–29 [Google Scholar]
  63. Collier RJ, Beede DK, Thatcher WW, Israel LA, Wilcox CJ. 1982. Influences of environment and its modification on dairy animal health and production. J. Dairy Sci. 65:2213–27 [Google Scholar]
  64. Horowitz M. 2002. From molecular and cellular to integrative heat defense during exposure to chronic heat. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 131:475–83 [Google Scholar]
  65. Collier RJ, Baumgard Lock AL LH, , Bauman DE. 2005. Physiological limitations, nutrient partitioning. Yields of Farmed Species: Constraints and Opportunities in the 21st Century Wiseman J, Sylvestor R. 351–78 Nottingham, UK: Nottingham Univ. Press [Google Scholar]
  66. Patapoutian A, Peier AM, Story GM, Viswanath V. 2003. Thermo TRP channels and beyond: mechanisms of temperature sensation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 4:529–39 [Google Scholar]
  67. DiMicco JA, Zaretsky DV. 2007. The dorsomedial hypothalamus: a new player in thermoregulation. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 292:R47–63 [Google Scholar]
  68. Vay L, Gu C, McNaughton PA. 2011. The thermo-TRP ion channel family: properties and therapeutic applications. Br. J. Pharmacol. 165:787–801 [Google Scholar]
  69. Craig AD, Bushnell MC, Zhang ET, Blomqvist A. 1994. A thalamic nucleus specific for pain and temperature sensation. Nature 372:770–73 [Google Scholar]
  70. Ishiwata T, Hasegawa H, Yatsumatus M, Akano F, Yazawa T et al. 2002. The role of preoptic area and anterior hypothalamus and median raphe nucleus on thermoregulatory system in freely moving rats. Neurosci. Lett. 306:26–28 [Google Scholar]
  71. Cano G, Passerin AM, Schiltz JC, Card JP, Morrison SF, Sved AF. 2003. Anatomical substrates for the central control of sympathetic outflow to interscapular adipose tissue during cold exposure. J. Comp. Neurol. 460:303–26 [Google Scholar]
  72. Nakamura K, Matsumura K, Hübschle T, Nakamura Y, Hioki H et al. 2004. Identification of sympathetic premotor neurons in medullary raphe regions mediating fever and other thermoregulatory functions. J. Neurosci. 24:5370–80 [Google Scholar]
  73. Maloyan A, Eli-Berchoer L, Semenza GL, Gerstenblith G, Stern MD, Horowitz M. 2005. Hif-1α-targeted pathways are activated by heat acclimation and contribute to acclimation-ischemic cross-tolerance in the heart. Physiol. Genomics 23:79–88 [Google Scholar]
  74. Hahn JS, Hu Z, Thiele DJ, Iyer VR. 2004. Genome-wide analysis of the biology of stress responses through heat shock transcription factor. Mol. Cell. Biol. 24:5249–56 [Google Scholar]
  75. Al-Fageeh MB, Smales CM. 2006. Control and regulation of the cellular responses to cold shock: the responses in yeast and mammalian systems. Biochem. J. 397:247–59 [Google Scholar]
  76. Trinklein ND, Murray JI, Hartman SJ, Botstein D, Myers RM. 2004. The role of heat shock transcription factor 1 in the genome-wide regulation of the mammalian heat shock response. Mol. Biol. Cell 15:1254–61 [Google Scholar]
  77. Xiao X, Zuo X, Davis AA, McMillan DR, Curry BB et al. 1999. HSF1 is required for extra-embryonic development, postnatal growth and protection during inflammatory responses in mice. EMBO J. 18:5943–52 [Google Scholar]
  78. Treinin M, Shliar J, Jiang H, Powell-Coffman JA, Bromberg Z, Horowitz M. 2003. HIF-1 is required for heat acclimation in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Physiol. Genomics 14:17–24 [Google Scholar]
  79. Horowitz M, Eli-Berchoer L, Wapinski I, Friedman N, Kodesh E. 2004. Stress-related genomic responses during the course of heat acclimation and its association with ischemic-reperfusion cross-tolerance. J. Appl. Physiol. 97:1496–507 [Google Scholar]
  80. Tetievsky A, Cohen O, Eli-Berchner L, Gerstenblith G, Stern MD et al. 2008. Physiological and molecular evidence of heat acclimation memory: a lesson from thermal responses and ischemic cross-tolerance in the heart. Physiol. Genomics 34:78–87 [Google Scholar]
  81. Baumgard LH, Rhoads RP Jr. 2013. Effects of heat stress on postabsorptive metabolism and energetics. Annu. Rev. Anim. Biosci. 1:311–37 [Google Scholar]
  82. Kingsolver JG, Huey RB. 1998. Evolutionary analyses of morphological and physiological plasticity in thermally variable environments. Am. Zool. 38:545–60 [Google Scholar]
  83. West JW. 2003. Effects of heat-stress on production in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 86:2131–44 [Google Scholar]
  84. Igono MO, Steevens BJ, Shanklin MD, Johnson HD. 1985. Spray cooling effects on milk production, milk and rectal temperatures of cows during a moderate temperature summer season. J. Dairy Sci. 68:979–85 [Google Scholar]
  85. Kadzere CT, Murphy MR, Silanikove N, Maltz E. 2002. Heat stress in lactating dairy cows: a review. Livest. Prod. Sci. 77:59–91 [Google Scholar]
  86. Wahid A, Gelani S, Ashraf M, Foolad MR. 2007. Heat tolerance in plants: an overview. Environ. Exp. Bot. 61:199–223 [Google Scholar]
  87. Basiricò L, Morera P, Primi V, Lacetera N, Nardone A, Bernabucci U. 2011. Cellular thermotolerance is associated with heat shock protein 70.1 genetic polymorphisms in Holstein lactating cows. Cell Stress Chaperones 16:441–48 [Google Scholar]
  88. Hansen PJ. 2011. Heat stress and climate change. Comprehensive Biotechnology Moo-Young M. 4477–85 Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2nd ed. [Google Scholar]
  89. Berg F, Gustafson U, Andersson L. 2006. The uncoupling protein 1 gene (UCP1) is disrupted in the pig lineage: a genetic explanation for poor thermoregulation in piglets. PLOS Genet. 2:8e129 [Google Scholar]
  90. Hayes BJ, Bowman PJ, Chamberlain AJ, Savin K, van Tassell CP et al. 2009. A validated genome wide association study to breed cattle adapted to an environment altered by climate change. PLOS ONE 4:e6676 [Google Scholar]
  91. Dikman S, Cole JB, Null DJ, Hansen PJ. 2013. Genome-wide association mapping for identification of quantitative trait loci for rectal temperature during heat stress in Holstein cattle. PLOS ONE 8:7e69202 [Google Scholar]
  92. Howard JT, Kachman SD, Snelling WM, Pollak EJ, Ciobanu DC et al. 2013. Beef cattle body temperature during climatic stress: a genome-wide association study. Int. J. Biometeorol. 58:71665–72 [Google Scholar]
  93. Collier RJ, Gebremedhin K, Macko AR, Roy KS. 2012. Genes involved in the thermal tolerance of livestock. Environmental Stress Amelioration in Livestock Production Sejian V, Naqvi SMK, Ezeji T, Lakritz J, Lal R. 379–410 Berlin: Springer-Verlag [Google Scholar]
  94. Olson TA, Lucena C, Chase CC Jr, Hammond AC. 2003. Evidence of a major gene influencing hair length and heat tolerance in Bos taurus cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 81:80–90 [Google Scholar]
  95. Berthon D, Herpin P, Le Dividich J. 1995. Shivering is the main thermogenic mechanism in cold-exposed newborn pigs. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 54:87 [Google Scholar]
  96. Bertipaglia ECA, da Silva RG, Cardoso V, Fries LA. 2007. Hair coat characteristics and sweating rate of Bradford cows in Brazil. Livest. Sci. 112:99–108 [Google Scholar]
  97. Verissimo CJ, Nicolau CVJ, Cardoso VL, Pinheiro MG. 2002. Haircoat characteristics and tick infestation on GYR (Zebu) and crossbred (Holstein × GYR) cattle. Arch. Zootec. 51:389–92 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110659
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110659
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error