Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-r6qrq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T15:45:30.705Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Legal Consciousness and Cultural Capital

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Kathryne M. Young  and
Katie R. Billings
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article, we use a Bourdieusian framework to theorize the relationship between cultural capital and legal consciousness, and in turn to consider how variation in legal consciousness contributes to the creation and maintenance of legal hegemony. We investigate how cultural capital shapes the ways people navigate situations that force them to mediate between state-conferred rights, on one hand, and requests from state authority, on the other. Specifically, we analyze open-ended responses to a series of vignettes about constitutional rights in the criminal procedure context. We find that high cultural capital gives rise to a greater sense of self-efficacy in police–citizen interactions. This finding parallels the literature on the influence of cultural capital in the education context and may point to a more general pattern of self-advocacy within the juridical field. People with high cultural capital also evince a more salient sense of entitlement, understanding their own needs and desires as paramount. The social processes we identify may make people with limited cultural capital more vulnerable to investigative authority, and thus more susceptible to arrest and prosecution. Even if knowledge of a right and the opportunity to assert that right are equally distributed, meaningful access to that right remains inequitable.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 54 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 33 - 65
Copyright
© 2019 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The authors thank Rebecca Sandefur and two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful feedback, David Sklansky and Robert Weisberg for discussions about the legal implications of this project, Emma Aulenback for her research assistance, and several instructors who generously allowed us to distribute surveys in their courses.

References

References

Abel, Thomas. 2007. “Cultural Capital in Health Promotion.” In Health and Modernity: The Role of Theory in Health Promotion, edited by McQueen, D. and Kickbusch, I., 43–73. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abel, Thomas. 2008. “Cultural Capital and Social Inequality in Health.” J. of Epidemiology and Community Health 62: 1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abramson, Lyn Y., Seligman, Martin E., and Teasdale, John D. 1978. “Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation.” J. of Abnormal Psychology 87: 49–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abrego, Leisy J. 2011. “Legal Consciousness of Undocumented Latinos: Fear and Stigma as Barriers to Claims-Making for First- and 1.5-Generation Immigrants.” Law & Society Rev. 45: 337–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Elijah. 1990. Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community. University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aries, Elizabeth. 2008. Race and Class Matters at an Elite College. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Armenta, Amada. 2017. Protect, Serve, and Deport: The Rise of Policing as Immigration Enforcement. University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, Elizabeth A. and Hamilton, Laura T. 2013. Paying for the Party. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berrey, Ellen and Beth Nielsen, Laura. 2007. “Rights of Inclusion: Integrating Identity at the Bottom of the Dispute Pyramid.” Law & Social Inquiry 32: 233–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1974. “The School as a Conservative Force: Scholastic and Cultural Inequalities.” In Contemporary Research in the Sociology of Education, edited by Eggleston, J., 32–46. London: Methuen.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. “The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field.” Hastings Law J. 38: 805–53.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1990. In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calarco, Jessica Mc Crory. 2011. “‘I Need Help!’ Social Class and Children's Help-Seeking in Elementary School.” American Sociological Rev. 76: 862–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calarco, Jessica Mc Crory. 2018. Negotiating Opportunities: How the Middle Class Secures Advantages in School. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chanenson, Steven L. 2004. “Get the Facts, Jack! Empirical Research and the Changing Constitutional Landscape of Consent Searches.” Tennessee Law Rev. 71: 399–470.Google Scholar
Clair, Matthew. 2018a. “Privilege and Punishment: Unequal Experiences of Criminal Justice.” Ph.D. diss., Department of Sociology, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Clair, Matthew. 2018b. “Resources, Navigation, and Punishment in the Criminal Courts.” SocArXiv, https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/brf3d/ (accessed December 17, 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Correll, Joshua, Park, Bernadette, Judd, Charles M., and Wittenbrink, Bernd. 2007. “The Influence of Stereotypes on Decisions to Shoot.” European J. of Social Psychology 37: 1102–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deland, Michael. 2013. “Basketball in the Key of Law: The Significance of Disputing in Pick- Up Basketball.” Law & Society Rev. 47: 653–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiMaggio, Paul. 1982. “Cultural Capital and School Success: The Impact of Status Culture Participation on the Grades of U.S. High School Students.” American Sociological Rev. 47: 189–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downey, Douglas B., Von Hippel, Paul T., and Broh, Beckett A. 2004. “Are Schools the Great Equalizer? Cognitive Inequality during the Summer Months and the School Year.” American Sociological Rev. 69: 613–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubbin, Leslie A., Chang, Jamie Suki, and Shim, Janet K. 2013. “Cultural Health Capital and the Interactional Dynamics of Patient-Centered Care.” Social Science & Medicine 93: 113–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dumais, Susan A. 2002. “Cultural Capital, Gender, and School Success: The Role of Habitus.” Sociology of Education 75: 44–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Goff, Phillip A., Purdie, Valerie J., and Davies, Paul G. 2004. “Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.” J. of Personality and Social Psychology 87: 876–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edin, Kathryn and Schaefer, Luke. 2015. $2.00 a Day: Living on Almost Nothing in America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Epp, Charles R., Maynard-Moody, Steven, and Haider-Markel, Donald P. 2014. Pulled over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewick, Patricia and Silbey, Susan S. 1998. The Common Place of Law: Stories from Everyday Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feeley, Malcolm. 1979. The Process Is the Punishment. New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
Felstiner, William L., Abel, Richard L., and Sarat, Austin. 1980. “The Emergence and Transformation of Disputes: Naming, Blaming, Claiming….” Law and Society Rev. 15: 631–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, Andrew Guthrie and Bernache, Damien. 2008. “The ‘High-Crime Area’ Question: Requiring Verifiable and Quantifiable Evidence for Fourth Amendment Reasonable Suspicion Analysis.” American University Law Rev. 57: 1587–644.Google Scholar
Fleury-Steiner, Benjamin. 2003. “Before or against the Law? Citizens' Legal Beliefs and Expectations as Death Penalty Jurors.” Studies in Law, Politics, and Society 27: 115–37.Google Scholar
Franklin, R. D. 1963. “Youths' Expectancies about Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement Related to N Variables.” Ph.D. diss., Purdue University.Google Scholar
Franklin, R. D. 2004. Jurors' Stories of Death. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Galanter, Marc. 1974. “Why the ‘Haves’ Come out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change.” Law & Society Rev. 9: 95–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, Mary E. 2006. “Mobilizing the Law in China: ‘Informed Disenchantment’ and the Development of Legal Consciousness.” Law & Society Rev. 40: 783–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glanville, Jennifer L. and Story, William T. 2018. “Social Capital and Self-Rated Health: Clarifying the Role of Trust.” Social Science Research 71: 98–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goff, Phillip A., Lloyd, Tracey, Geller, Amanda, Raphael, Steven, and Glaser, Jack. 2016. The Science of Justice: Race, Arrests, and Police Use of Force. Center for Policing Equity.Google Scholar
Goffman, Alice. 2014. On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez, Laura E. 2016. “Connecting Critical Race Theory with Second Generation Legal Consciousness Work in Obasogie's ‘Blinded by Sight’.” Law & Social Inquiry 41: 1069–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagan, Margaret. 2019. “Innovation for Participatory Design in Access to Justice.” Daedalus 148: 120–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardin, Russell. 2002. Trust and Trustworthiness. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Harding, Rosie. 2006. “Dogs Are ‘Registered’, People Shouldn't be: Legal Consciousness and Lesbian and Gay Rights.” Social & Legal Studies 15: 511–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, David A. 1994. “Factors for Reasonable Suspicion: When Black and Poor Means Stopped and Frisked.” Indiana Law J. 69: 659–88.Google Scholar
Hirsh, Elizabeth and Lyons, Christopher J. 2010. “Perceiving Discrimination on the Job: Legal Consciousness, Workplace Context, and the Construction of Race Discrimination.” Law & Society Rev. 44: 269–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffmann, Elizabeth A. 2003. “Legal Consciousness and Dispute Resolution: Different Disputing Behavior at Two Similar Taxicab Companies.” Law & Social Inquiry 28: 691–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jack, Anthony Abraham. 2016. “(No) Harm in Asking: Class, Acquired Cultural Capital, and Academic Engagement at an Elite University.” Sociology of Education 89: 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagehiro, Dorothy K. 1988. “Perceived Voluntariness of Consent to Warrantless Police Searches.” J. of Applied Social Psychology 18: 38–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, Shamus Rahman. 2011. Privilege: The Making of an Adolescent Elite at St. Paul's School. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khawaja, Marwan and Mowafi, Mona. 2006. “Cultural Capital and Self-Rated Health in Low Income Women: Evidence from the Urban Health Study, Beirut, Lebanon.” J. of Urban Health 83: 444–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohler-Haussman, Issa. 2018. Misdemeanorland: Criminal Courts and Social Control in an Age of Broken Windows Policing. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kraus, Michael W. and Keltner, Dacher. 2009. “Signs of Socioeconomic Status: A Thin-Slicing Approach.” Psychological Science 20: 99–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraus, Michael W., Piff, Paul K., Mendoza-Denton, Rodolfo, Rheinschmidt, Michelle L., and Keltner, Dacher. 2012. “Social Class, Solipsism, and Contextualism: How the Rich Are Different from the Poor.” Psychological Rev. 119: 546–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lachman, Margie E. and Weaver, Suzanne L. 1998. “The Sense of Control as a Moderator of Social Class Differences in Health and Well-Being.” J. of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 763–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamont, Michele and Lareau, Annette. 1988. “Cultural Capital: Allusions, Gaps and Glissandos in Recent Theoretical Developments.” Sociological Theory 6: 153–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lareau, Annette. 1987. “Social Class Differences in Family-School Relationships: The Importance of Cultural Capital.” Sociology of Education 60: 73–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lareau, Annette. 2002. “Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black Families and White Families.” American Sociological Rev. 67: 747–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lareau, Annette. 2011. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lareau, Annette. 2015. “Cultural Knowledge and Social Inequality.” American Sociological Rev. 80: 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lareau, Annette and Weininger, Elliot B. 2003. “Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.” Theory and Society 32: 567–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, Erik W. 2004. “Institutionalizing Legal Consciousness: Regulation and the Embedding of Market Participants in the Securities Industry in Ghana and Fiji.” Law & Society Rev. 38: 737–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legewie, Joscha. 2016. “Racial Profiling and Use of Force in Police Stops: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination.” American J. of Sociology 122: 379–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefcourt, Herbert M. 2014. Locus of Control: Current Trends in Theory & Research. New York: Psychology Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, Judith. 2013. Ain't No Trust: How Bosses, Boyfriends, and Bureaucrats Fail Low-Income Mothers and Why it Matters. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, Kay and Mellema, Virginia. 2001. “Strategizing the Street: How Law Matters in the Lives of Women in the Street-Level Drug Economy.” Law & Social Inquiry 26: 169–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lichtenberg, Illya Dionysus. 1999. “Voluntary Consent or Obedience to Authority: An Inquiry into the ‘Consensual’ Police–Citizen Encounter.” Unpublished Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University.Google Scholar
Madden, Erin Fanning. 2015. “Cultural Health Capital on the Margins: Cultural Resources for Navigating Healthcare in Communities with Limited Access.” Social Science & Medicine 133: 145–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maier, Steven F. and Seligman, Martin E. 1976. “Learned Helplessness: Theory and Evidence.” J. of Experimental Psychology 105: 3–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malat, Jennifer. 2006. “Expanding Research on the Racial Disparity in Medical Treatment with Ideas from Sociology.” Health 10: 302–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Marshall, Anna-Marie. 2005. “Idle Rights: Employees' Rights Consciousness and the Construction of Sexual Harassment Policies.” Law & Society Rev. 39: 83–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marteleto, Leticia and Andrade, Fernando. 2014. “The Educational Achievement of Brazilian Adolescents: Cultural Capital and the Interaction between Families and Schools.” Sociology of Education 87: 16–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCann, Michael W. 1994. Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
McCann, Michael W. 1996. “Causal Versus Constitutive Explanations (Or, On the Difficulty of Being So Positive…).” Law & Social Inquiry 21: 457–82.Google Scholar
McDermott, Monica. 2006. Working-Class White: The Making and Unmaking of Race Relations. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle. 1990. Getting Justice and Getting Even: Legal Consciousness among Working Class Americans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle. 1988. “Legal Pluralism.” Law & Society Rev. 22: 869–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrill, Calvin, Edelman, Lauren B., Tyson, Karolyn, and Arum, Ruchard. 2010. “Legal Mobilization in Schools: The Paradox of Rights and Race among Youth.” Law & Society Rev. 44: 651–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrow, Weston J., White, Michael D., and Fradella, Henry F. 2017. “After the Stop: Exploring the Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Police Use of Force during Terry Stops.” Police Q. 20: 367–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moustafa, Tamir. 2013. “Islamic Law, Women's Rights, and Popular Legal Consciousness in Malaysia.” Law & Social Inquiry 38: 168–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, Anne L., Goyette, Kimberly A., and Soares, Joseph A. 2003. “Who Goes to Graduate School? Social and Academic Correlates of Educational Continuation after College.” Sociology of Education 76: 143–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nascimento, Isabella. 2017. “Hands Up, Don't Shoot: The Use of Deadly Force by Police against Racial Minorities in the United States.” UC Davis J. of International Law and Policy 24: 63–98.Google Scholar
Nadler, Janice. 2002. “No Need to Shout: Bus Stops and the Psychology of Coercion.” Supreme Court Rev. 202: 153–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Natapoff, Alexandra. 2012. “Misdemeanors.” Southern California Law Rev. 85: 1313–76.Google Scholar
Nelsen, Hart M. and Frost, Eleanor. 1971. “Residence, Anomie, and Receptivity to Education among Southern Appalachian Presbyterians.” Rural Sociology 36: 521–32.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Laura Beth. 2000. “Situating Legal Consciousness: Experiences and Attitudes of Ordinary Citizens about Law and Street Harrassment.” Law & Society Rev. 24: 201–36.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Laura Beth. 2004. License to Harass: Law, Hierarchy, and Offensive Public Speech. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Obasogie, Osagie K. 2013. Blinded by Sight: Seeing Race through the Eyes of the Blind. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Peterson, Christopher, Maier, Steven F., and Seligman, Martin E. 1993. Learned Helplessness: A Theory for the Age of Personal Control. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Piff, Paul K., Kraus, Michael W., Côté, Stéphane, Cheng, Bonnie Hayden, and Keltner, Dacher. 2010. “Having Less, Giving More: The Influence of Social Class on Prosocial Behavior.” J. of Personality and Social Psychology 99: 771–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piliavin, Irving and Briar, Scott. 1964. “Police Encounters with Juveniles.” American Journal of Sociology 70: 206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plant, E. Ashby and Peruche, B. Michelle. 2005. “The Consequences of Race for Police Officers' Responses to Criminal Suspects.” Psychological Science 16: 180–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pleasance, Pascoe and Balmer, Nigel J. 2019. “Justice & the Capability to Function in Society.” Daedalus 148: 140–9.Google Scholar
Quinn, Beth A. 2000. “The Paradox of Complaining: Law, Humor, and Harassment in the Everyday Work World.” Law & Social Inquiry 25: 1151–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridgeway, Cecilia L. and Fisk, Susan R. 2012. “Class Rules, Status Dynamics, and ‘Gateway’ Interactions.” In Facing Social Class: How Societal Rank Influences Interaction, edited by Fiske, S. and Markus, H., 131–51. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Rios, Victor M. 2011. Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Sandefur, Rebecca L. 2007. “The Importance of Doing Nothing: Everyday Problems and Responses of Inaction.” In Transforming Lives: Law and Social Process, edited by Pleasence, P., Buck, A., and Balmer, N., 116–36. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Sandefur, Rebecca L. 2010. “The Impact of Counsel: An Analysis of Empirical Evidence.” Seattle J. for Social Justice 9: 51–95.Google Scholar
Sandefur, Rebecca L. 2014. Accessing Justice in the Contemporary USA: Findings from the Community Needs and Services Study. Report: American Bar Foundation.Google Scholar
Sandefur, Rebecca L. 2019. “Access to What?” Daedalus 148: 49–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shim, Janet K. 2010. “Cultural Health Capital: A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Health Care Interactions and the Dynamics of Unequal Treatment.” J. of Health and Social Behavior 51: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silbey, Susan S. 2001. “Legal Culture and Consciousness.” In International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, edited by Smelser, N. J. and Baltes, P. B., 8623–9. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.Google Scholar
Silbey, Susan S. 2005. “After Legal Consciousness.” Annual Rev. of Law and Social Science 1: 323–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, Jonathan. 2012. “Misdemeanor Injustice and the Crisis of Mass Incarceration.” Southern California Law Rev. Postscript 85: 113–7.Google Scholar
Smith, Douglas A. 1986. “The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior.” Crime and Justice 8: 313–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stellar, Jennifer E., Manzo, Vida M., Kraus, Michael W., and Keltner, Dacher. 2012. “Class and Compassion: Socioeconomic Factors Predict Responses to Suffering.” Emotion 12: 449–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stuart, Forrest. 2016. Down, Out, and Under Arrest: Policing and Everyday Life in Skid Row. University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuntz, William J. 2011. The Collapse of American Criminal Justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Alice. 2001. “Cultural Capital and Educational Attainment.” Sociology 35: 893–912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunshine, Jason and Tyler, Tom R. 2003. “The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing.” Law & Society Rev. 37: 513–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. 2004. “Procedural justice.” In The Blackwell Companion to Law and Society, edited by Sarat, A., 435–52. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., Casper, Jonathan D., and Fisher, Bonnie. 1989. “Maintaining Allegiance toward Political Authorities: The Role of Prior Attitudes and the Use of Fair Procedures.” American J. of Political Science 33: 629–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyler, Tom R. and Huo, Yuen J. 2002. Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Villegas, Mauricio García. 2004. “On Pierre Bourdieu's Legal Thought.” Droit et Société 57–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagatsuma, Hiroshi and Rosett, Arthur. 1987. “The Implications of Apology: Law and Culture in Japan and the United States.” Law & Society Review 20:461–98.Google Scholar
Wang, Cui-yan, Zhang, Kai, and Zhang, Min. 2017. “Dysfunctional Attitudes, Learned Helplessness, and Coping Styles among Men with Substance Use Disorders.” Social Behavior and Personality: An International J. 45: 269–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, Lindsey. 2018. “Legal Consciousness as Race Consciousness: Expansion of the Fourth Amendment Seizure Analysis through Objective Knowledge of Police Impunity.” Seton Hall Law Rev. 48: 403–48.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. 1954. Max Weber on Law in Economy and Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Young, Kathryne M. 2014. “Everyone Knows the Game: Legal Consciousness in the Hawaiian Cockfight.” Law & Society Rev. 48: 499–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Kathryne M. and Munsch, Christin L. 2014. “Fact and Fiction in Constitutional Criminal Procedure.” South Carolina Law Rev. 66: 445–90.Google Scholar
Young, Kathryne M. 2009. “Rights Consciousness in Criminal Procedure: A Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry.” Sociology of Crime, Law & Deviance 12: 67–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zemans, Frances Kahn. 1983. “Legal Mobilization: The Neglected Role of the Law in the Political System.” The American Political Science Rev. 77: 690–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimring, Franklin E. 2017. When Police Kill. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cases Cited

Brendlin v. California, 551 U. S. 249 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salinas v. Texas, 570 U. S. 178 (2013).Google Scholar
United States v. Drayton, 536 U. S. 194 (2002).Google Scholar