Abstract
There were two experiments in which three phosphite concentrations were sprayed onto the foliage of either Banksia brownii, B. baxteri or B. coccinea naturally infected with Phytophthora cinnamomi in the Esperance Plains bioregion of Western Australia, or B. grandis artificially infected with P. cinnamomi in Eucalyptus marginata forest of south-western Australia. Plots were either sprayed with one of three concentrations of phosphite (2.5, 5 or 10 g phosphite/L) and penetrant-spreading agent or sprayed only with penetrant-spreading agent. Mortality of the Banksia species, understorey and crown health, plant height and soil inoculum at each site were the dependent variables. There were no significant differences in overstorey phytotoxic necrosis rating of B. brownii, B. baxteri and B. coccinea between phosphite treatments 2.7 and 4 years after the first spray. The greatest phytotoxic effect of phosphite application was the stunting of B. coccinea growth, which did not occur in B. brownii, B. baxteri and B. grandis. For naturally infested Banksia species, greatest mortality occurred in B. brownii and least in B. coccinea, with B. baxteri being intermediate between mortality for B. brownii and B. coccinea. There was a significant reduction in apparent mortality rate and increase in years to 50% mortality following foliar application of phosphite to the four Banksia species. Greatest reduction in mortality of the Banksia species occurred for concentrations between 5–10 g phosphite/L. Challenge inoculation showed that spray treatments of 5 g and 10 g of phosphite/L were effective in B. grandis, 2.2 years after spray. The proportion of positive P. cinnamomi soil samples from the top 3 cm of soil was significantly greater than the proportion positive from 30 cm below the soil surface in infested B. brownii and B. coccinea, but there was no significant difference in the proportion of positive P. cinnamomi soil samples between depth of sampling for B. baxteri. Phosphite had no significant effect on the frequency of isolation of P. cinnamomi from the soil of infested B. baxteri and B. coccinea. Determination of phosphite effectiveness against P. cinnamomi and phytotoxic responses between plant species will assist prescription optimisation for the most effective protection of threatened flora.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aberton MJ, Wilson BA, Cahill DM (1999) The use of potassium phosphonate to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in native vegetation at Anglesea, Victoria. Australasian Plant Pathology 28, 225–234. doi: 10.1071/AP99037
Aerts R, Chapin FS (2000) The mineral nutrition of wild plants revisited: a re-evaluation of processes and patterns. Advances in Ecological Research 30, 1–67.
Ali Z, Guest DI (1998) Potassium phosphonate controls root rot of Xanthorrhoea australis and X. minor caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australasian Plant Pathology 27, 40–44. doi: 10.1071/ AP98003
Ali Z, Smith I, Guest DI (1999) Effect of potassium phosphonate on root rot of Pinus radiata caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australasian Plant Pathology 28, 120–125. doi: 10.1071/AP99021
Allen RN, Pegg KG, Forsberg LI, Firth DJ (1980) Fungicide control in pineapple and avocado of diseases caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 20, 119–124. doi: 10.1071/EA9800119
Aryantha NP, Guest DI (2004) Phosphonate (PO3) effectiveness against Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands on Thryptomene calycina, Banksia grandis and Banksia spinulosa. The Plant Pathology Journal 3, 19–25.
Barrett S (2003) Monitoring of aerial phosphite applications for the control of Phytophthora cinnamomi in the Albany district. In ‘Phytophthora in forests and natural ecosystems’. 2nd International IUFRO Working Party 7.02.09 Meeting, Albany, W. Australia. (Eds JA McComb, GE StJ Hardy, IC Tommerup) pp. 132–137. (Murdoch University Print: Murdoch)
Barrett S (2005) Conservation of flora and plant communities threatened by Phytophthora dieback in southern Western Australia. Australasian Plant Conservation 13(4), 16–17.
Barrett SR, Shearer BL, Hardy GEStJ (2003) The efficacy of phosphite applied after inoculation on the colonisation of Banksia brownii stems by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Australasian Plant Pathology 32, 1–7. doi: 10.1071/AP02061
Bélanger RR, Bowen PA, Ehret DL, Menzies JG (1995) Soluble silicon: Its role in crop disease management of greenhouse crops. Plant Disease 79, 329–336.
Carswell C, Grant BR, Theodorou ME, Harris J, Niere JO, Plaxton WC (1996) The fungicide phosphonate disrupts the phosphate-starvation response in Brassica nigra seedlings. Plant Physiology 110, 105–110.
Chapin FS (1980) The mineral nutrition of wild plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11, 233–260. doi: 10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.001313
Cochrane A, Coates D (1994) Western Australia’s Threatened Flora Seed Centre and its role in conservation of genetic diversity. Danthonia 3, 4–7.
Cramer GR (2002) Response of abscisic acid mutants of Arabidopsis to salinity. Functional Plant Biology 29, 561–567. doi: 10.1071/PP01132
Darvas JM (1983) Five years of continued chemical control of phytophthora root rot of avocados. South African Avocado Growers’ Association Yearbook 6, 72–73.
Davies WJ, Metcalf J, Lodge TA, da Costa AR (1986) Plant growth substances and the regulation of growth under drought. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 13, 105–125.
Davis RM (1981) Phytophthora foot rot control with systemic fungicides metalaxyl and fosetyl aluminium. Proceedings of the International Society of Citriculture 1, 349–351.
Davis RI, Irwin JAG, Imrie BC (1994) Glasshouse and field evaluation of cowpea lines for partial resistance to Phytophthora vignae. Plant Pathology 43, 17–26. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.1994.tb00548.x
Day PR (1965) Particle fraction and particle-size analysis. In ‘Methods of soil analysis. Part 1’. (Ed. CA Black) pp. 545–567. Agronomy Monograph 9. (ASA and SSSA: Madison, WI)
Grierson PF, Adams MA (1999) Nutrient cycling and growth in forest ecosystems of south western Australia. Relevance to agricultural landscapes. Agroforestry Systems 45, 215–244. doi: 10.1023/A:1006267604313
Havel JJ (1975) Site-vegetation mapping in the northern jarrah forest (Darling Range). 1. Definition of site-vegetation types. Bulletin 86. Forests Department, Perth.
Jeger MJ (2004) Analysis of disease progress as a basis for evaluating disease management practices. Annual Review of Phytopathology 42, 61–82. doi: 10.1146/annurev.phyto.42.040803.140427
Kannwischer ME, Mitchell DJ (1978) The influence of a fungicide on the epidemiology of black shank of tobacco. Phytopathology 68, 1760–1765.
Kirby KN (1993) ‘Advanced data analysis with SYSTAT.’ (Van Nostrad Reinhold: New York)
Knoche M (1994) Organosilicone surfactant performance in agricultural spray application: a review. Weed Research 34, 221–239. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3180.1994.tb01990.x
Komorek BM, Shearer BL, Blumberg MV, Fairman RG (1997) Potassium phosphite — effective chemical tool in the protection of native flora threatened by Phytophthora. In ‘Proceedings of the 11th biennial conference of the Australasian Plant Pathology Society’. p. 34. (Australasian Plant Pathology Society: Perth)
Kuan TL, Erwin DC (1982) Effect of soil matric potential on phytophthora root rot of alfalfa. Phytopathology 72, 543–548.
Lim TM, Jerie PH, Merriman PR (1990) Evaluation of phosphonic (phosphorous) acid for controlling Phytophthora crown and trunk rot of peach and apricot. Australasian Plant Pathology 19, 134–136. doi: 10.1071/APP9900134
Marks GC, Kassaby FY (1974) Detection of Phytophthora cinnamomi in soils. Australian Forestry 36, 198–203.
Matheron ME, Porchas M, Matejka JC (1997) Distribution and seasonal population dynamics of Phytophthora citrophthora and P. parasitica in Arizona citrus orchards and effect of fungicides on tree health. Plant Disease 81, 1384–1390.
McCarren KL, McComb JA, Shearer BL, Hardy GEStJ (2005) The role of chlamydospores of Phytophthora cinnamomi — a review. Australasian Plant Pathology 34, 333–338. doi: 10.1071/AP05038
McKenzie HA, Wallace HS (1954) The Kjeldahl determination of nitrogen: a critical study of digestion conditions—temperature, catalyst and oxidising agent. Australian Journal of Chemistry 7, 55–70.
Monks L, Coates D (2002) The translocation of two critically endangered Acacia species. Conservation Science Western Australia 4, 54–61.
Murphy J, Riley T (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Analytica Chimica Acta 27, 31–36. doi: 10.1016/S0003-2670(00)88444-5
Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853–858. doi: 10.1038/35002501
Pilbeam RA, Colquhoun IJ, Shearer B, Hardy GEStJ (2000) Phosphite concentration: its effect on phytotoxicity symptoms and colonisation by Phytophthora cinnamomi in three understorey species of Eucalyptus marginata forest. Australasian Plant Pathology 29, 86–95. doi: 10.1071/AP00016
Piper CS (1942) ‘Soil and plant analysis.’ (University of Adelaide: Adelaide)
Reich PB, Wright IJ, Cavender-Bares J, Craines JM, Oleksyn J, Westoby M, Walters MB (2003) The evolution of plant functional variation: traits, spectra, and strategies. International Journal of Plant Sciences 164, S143-S164. doi: 10.1086/374368
Roux HFLE, Wehner FC, Kotzé JM, Grech NM (1991) Combining fosetyl-Al trunk injection or metalaxyl soil drenching with soil application of aldicarb for control of citrus decline. Plant Disease 75, 1233–1236.
Schutte GC, Bezuidenhout JJ, Kotzé JM (1991) Timing of application of phosphonate fungicides using different application methods as determined by means of gas-liquid-chromatography for Phytophthora root rot control of citrus. Phytophylactica 23, 69–71.
Seymour NP, Thompson JP, Fiske ML (1994) Phytotoxicity of fosetyl-Al and phosphonic acid to maize during production of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculum. Plant Disease 78, 441–446.
Shea SR, Gillen KJ, Leppard WI (1980) Seasonal variation in population levels of Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands in soil in diseased, freely drained Eucalyptus marginata Sm sites in the northern jarrah forest of south-western Australia. Protection Ecology 2, 135–156.
Shearer BL, Fairman RG (2007) A stem injection of phosphite protects Banksia species and Eucalyptus marginata from Phytophthora cinnamomi for at least four years. Australasian Plant Pathology 36, 78–86. doi: 10.1071/AP06085
Shearer BL, Shea SR (1987) Variation in seasonal population fluctuations of Phytophthora cinnamomi within and between infected Eucalyptus marginata sites of southwestern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 21, 209–230. doi: 10.1016/0378-1127(87)90044-2
Shearer BL, Smith IW (2000) Disease of eucalypts caused by soilborne species of Phytophthora and Pythium. In ‘Diseases and pathogens of eucalypts’. (Ed. PJ Keane, GA Kile, FD Podger, BN Brown) pp. 259–291. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne)
Shearer BL, Tippett JT (1989) Jarrah dieback: the dynamics and management of Phytophthora cinnamomi in the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest of south-western Australia. Research Bulletin 3. Department of Conservation and Land Management, Perth.
Shearer BL, Wilcoxson RD (1980) Sporulation of Septoria species on wheat and barley in Minnesota. Agricultural Experimental Station Technical Bulletin 323. University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN.
Shearer BL, Shea SR, Deegan PM(1987) Temperature-growth relationships of Phytophthora cinnamomi in the secondary phloem of roots of Banksia grandis and Eucalyptus marginata. Phytopathology 77, 661–665.
Shearer BL, Michaelsen BJ, Somerford PJ (1988) Effects of isolate and time of inoculation on invasion of secondary phloem of Eucalyptus spp. and Banksia grandis by Phytophthora spp. Plant Disease 72, 121–126.
Shearer BL, Crane CE, Fairman RG (2004) Phosphite reduces disease extension of a Phytophthora cinnamomi front in Banksia woodland, even after fire. Australasian Plant Pathology 33, 249–254. doi: 10.1071/AP04002
Shearer BL, Fairman RG, Grant MJ (2006) Effective concentration of phosphite in controlling Phytophthora cinnamomi following stem injection of Banksia species and Eucalyptus marginata. Forest Pathology 36, 119–135. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0329.2006.00440.x
Shearer BL, Crane CE, Barrett S, Cochrane A (2007) Phytophthora cinnamomi invasion, a major threatening process to flora diversity conservation in the South-west Botanical Province of Western Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 225–238.
Smith B (1994) Effects of phosphonic acid and sodium silicate on lesion development of Phytophthora cinnamomi and histological responses in host species endemic to Western Australia. Honours Thesis, University of Western Australia.
Smith BJ, Shearer BL, Sivasithamparam K (1997) Compartmentalization of Phytophthora cinnamomi in stems of highly susceptible Banksia brownii treated with phosphonate. Mycological Research 101, 1101–1107. doi: 10.1017/S0953756297003754
Specht RL, Groves RH (1966) A comparison of the phosphorus nutrition of Australian heath plants and introduced economic plants. Australian Journal of Botany 14, 201–221. doi: 10.1071/BT9660201
Sukarno N, Smith FA, Scott ES, Jones GP, Smith SE (1998) The effect of fungicides on vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: III. The influence of VA mycorrhiza on phytotoxic effects following application of fosetyl-AL and phosphonate. The New Phytologist 139, 321–330. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00204.x
Swart L, Denman S (2000) Chemical control of Phytophthora cinnamomi in potted Leucospermum plants. Australasian Plant Pathology 29, 230–239. doi: 10.1071/AP00045
Ticconi CA, Delatorre CA, Abel S (2001) Attenuation of phosphate starvation responses by phosphite in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiology 127, 963–972. doi: 10.1104/pp.127.3.963
Tooley PW, Grau CR (1982) Identification and quantitative characterization of rate-reducing resistance to Phytophthora megasperma f. sp. glycinea in soybean seedlings. Phytopathology 72, 727–733.
Tsao PH, Guy SO (1977) Inhibition of Mortierella and Pythium in a Phytophthora- isolation medium containing hymexazol. Phytopathology 67, 796–801.
Tynan KM, Wilkinson CJ, Holmes JM, Dell B, Colquhoun IJ, McComb JA, Hardy GEStJ (2001) The long-term ability of phosphite to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in two native plant communities of Western Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 49, 761–770. doi: 10.1071/BT00062
Walker GE (1989) Phytotoxicity in mandarins caused by phosphorous acid. Australasian Plant Pathology 18, 57–59. doi: 10.1071/APP9890057
Wellings NP, Thompson JP, Fiske ML (1990) Phytotoxicity of phosphonic (phosphorous) acid and fosetyl-Al to the host in mycorrhizal cultures on maize. Australasian Plant Pathology 19, 141–142. doi: 10.1071/APP9900141
Wicks TJ, Hall B (1988) Preliminary evaluation of phosphorous acid, fosetyl-Al and metalaxyl for controlling Phytophthora cambivora on almond and cherry. Crop Protection (Guildford, Surrey) 7, 314–318. doi: 10.1016/0261-2194(88)90078-6
Wicks TJ, Hall B (1990) Evaluation of phosphonic (phosphorous) acid for the control of Phytophthora cambivora on almond and cherry in South Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 19, 132–133. doi: 10.1071/APP9900132
Wilkinson CJ, Holmes JM, Tynan KM, Colquhoun IJ, McComb JA, Hardy GEStJ, Dell B (2001a) Ability of phosphite applied in a glasshouse trial to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in five plant species native to Western Australia. Australasian Plant Pathology 30, 343–351. doi: 10.1071/AP01055
Wilkinson CJ, Holmes JM, Dell B, Tynan KM, McComb JA, Shearer BL, Colquhoun IJ, Hardy GEStJ (2001b) Effect of phosphite on in planta zoospore production of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant Pathology 50, 587–593. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3059.2001.00605.x
Wilkinson L (2002) ‘SYSTAT 10.2. Statistics I.’ (SYSTAT Software Inc.: San Jose, CA)
Wright IJ, Westoby M (2003) Nutrient concentration, resorption and lifespan: leaf traits of Australian sclerophyll species. Functional Ecology 17, 10–19. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2435.2003.00694.x
Yordanov I (1995) Responses of photosynthesis to stress and plant growth regulators. Bulgarian Journal of Plant Physiology 21, 51–70.
Zadoks JC (1971) Systems analysis and the dynamics of epidemics. Phytopathology 61, 600–610.
Zadoks JC, Schein RD (1979) ‘Epidemiology and plant disease management.’ (Oxford University Press: New York)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shearer, B.L., Fairman, R.G. Application of phosphite in a high-volume foliar spray delays and reduces the rate of mortality of four Banksia species infected with Phytophthora cinnamomi . Australasian Plant Pathology 36, 358–368 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1071/AP07033
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AP07033