Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Is there Still a PR Problem Online? Exploring the Effects of Different Sources and Crisis Response Strategies in Online Crisis Communication Via Social Media

  • Published:
Corporate Reputation Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the effects of source and crisis response strategy on crisis communication outcomes in the context of social media. A 3 (source: organization, CEO, or customer) × 2 (strategy: accommodative or defensive) × 2 (crisis type: airline crash or bank hacking) mixed experimental study was conducted with 391 participants. The organizational sources were more likely to be perceived as more credible than the non-organizational sources. In particular, the CEO appeared to be the most trustworthy and credible source in delivering crisis messages. The path analysis indicated that perceived source credibility mediated the effect of source on reputation and behavioral intentions. This mediation appeared to be contingent on the type of crisis response strategy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, M.W. and Caillouet, R.H. (1994) ‘Legitimation endeavors: Impression management strategies used by an organization in crisis’, Communication Monographs, 61(1), 44–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arora, R., Stoner, C. and Arora, A. (2006) ‘Using framing and credibility to incorporate exercise and fitness in individuals’ lifestyle’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(4), 199–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arpan, L.M. and Roskos-Ewoldsen, D.R. (2005) ‘Stealing thunder: Analysis of the effects of proactive disclosure of crisis information’, Public Relations Review, 31(3), 425–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, L., Liu, B.R. and Jin, Y. (2012) ‘How audiences seek out crisis information: Exploring the social-mediated crisis communication model’, Journal of Applied Communication Research, 40(2), 188–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avery, E.J., Lariscy, R.W., Kim, S. and Hocke. T. (2010) ‘A quantitative review of crisis communication research in public relations from 1991 to 2009’, Public Relations Review, 36(2), 190–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benoit, W.L. (1997) ‘Image repair discourse and crisis communication’, Public Relations Review, 23(2), 177–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartneck, C., Duenser, A., Moltchanova, E. and Zawieska, K. (2015) ‘Comparing the similarity of responses received from studies in Amazon’s Mechanical Turk to studies conducted online and with direct recruitment’, PLos ONE, 10(4), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berinsky, A.J., Huber, G.A. and Lenz, G.S. (2012) ‘Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: Amazon.com’s Mechanical Turk’, Political Analysis, 20, 351–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T. and Gosling, S.D. (2011) ‘Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data?’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callison, C. (2001) ‘Do PR practitioners have a PR problem?: The effect of associating a source with public relations and client-negative news on audience perception of credibility’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 13(3), 219–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callison, C. and Zillmann, D. (2002) ‘Company affiliation and communicative ability: How perceived organizational ties influence source persuasiveness in a company-negative news environment’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 14(2), 85–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casler, K., Bickel, L. and Hackett, E. (2013) ‘Separate but equal? A comparison of participants and data gathered via Amazon’s MTurk, social media, and face-to-face behavioral testing’, Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 2156–2160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, J. and Chung, W. (2013) ‘Analysis of the interactive relationship between apology and product in crisis communication: An experimental study on the Toyota recall crisis’, Journal of Business and Technical, 27(1), 3–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, S.-C. and Kamal, S. (2008) ‘The effect of perceived blogger credibility and argument quality on message elaboration and brand attitudes: An exploratory study’, Journal of Interactive Advertising, 8(2), 26–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claeys, A.-S. and Cauberghe, V. (2012) ‘Crisis response and crisis timing strategies, two sides of the same coin’, Public Relations Review, 38(1), 83–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claeys, A.-S., Cauberghe, V. and Leysen, J. (2013) Implications of stealing thunder for the impact of expressing emotions in organizational crisis communication’, Journal of Applied Communication Research, 41(3), 293–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claeys, A.-S., Cauberghe, V. and Vyncke, P. (2010) ‘Restoring reputations in times of crisis: An experimental study of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory and the moderating effects of locus of control’, Public Relations Review, 36(3), 256–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. (1998) ‘An analytic framework for crisis situations: Better responses from a better understanding of the situation’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 10(3), 177–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. (2007a) ‘Attribution theory as a guide for post-crisis communication research’, Public Relations Review, 33(2), 135–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. (2007b) ‘Protecting organization reputation during a crisis: The development and application of situational crisis communication theory’, Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. (2015) Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. and Holladay, S.J. (1996) ‘Communication and attributions in a crisis: An experimental study in crisis communication’, Journal of Public Relations Research 8(4), 279–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. and Holladay, S.J. (2002) ‘Helping crisis managers protect reputational assets: Initial tests of the situational crisis communication theory’, Management Communication Quarterly, 16(2), 165–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. and Holladay, S.J. (2008) ‘Comparing apology to equivalent crisis response strategies: Clarifying apology’s role and value in crisis communication’, Public Relations Review, 34(3), 252–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, W.T. and Holladay, S.J. (2012) ‘Amazon.com’s Orwellian nightmare: Exploring apology in an online environment’, Journal of Communication Management, 16(3), 280–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiStaso, M.W., Vafeiadas, M. and Amaral, C. (2015) ‘Managing a health crisis on Facebook: How the response strategies of apology, sympathy, and information influence public relations’, Public Relations Review, 41(2), 222–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edelman Trust Barometer. (2016) Retrieved from http://www.edelman.com/assets/uploads/2016/01/2016-Edelman-Trust-Barometer-Global-_-Leadership-in-a-Divided-World.pdf

  • Fearn-Banks, K. (2016) Crisis Communication: A Casebook Approach (5th Ed.). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frandsen, F. and Johansen, W. (2010) Crisis communication, complexity, and the cartoon affair: A case study. In: W.T. Coombs and S.J. Holladay (eds.) The Handbook of Crisis Communication. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 425–448.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Freberg, K. (2012) ‘Intention to comply with crisis messages communicated via social media’, Public Relations Review, 38(3), 416–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • González-Herrero, A. and Smith, S. (2008) ‘Crisis communications management on the Web: How Internet-based technologies are changing the way public relations professionals handle business crises’, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 16(3), 143–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, J. (2010) Use, value and impact of social media on public relations practitioners in the Fox cities. Senior honors thesis, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, Oshkosh, WI. Online publication, https://prsanewis.org/downloads/social_media_thesis.pdf, accessed 20 September 2016.

  • Grunig, J.E. (2009) Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. PRism 6(2). Available at http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/globalPR/GRUNIG.pdf, accessed 20 September 2016.

  • Haigh, M.M. and Brubaker, P. (2010) ‘Examining how image restoration strategy impacts perceptions of corporate social responsibility, organization-public relationships, and source credibility’, Corporate Communication: An International Journal, 15(4), 453–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hearit, K.M. (2001) Corporate apologia: When an organization speaks in defense of itself. In: R.L. Heath (ed.) Handbook of Public Relations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 501–511.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hearit, K.M. (2006) Crisis Management by Apology: Corporate Response to Allegations of Wrongdoing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, R.L. (1997) Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, R.L. (2010) Crisis communication: Defining the beast and de-marginalizing key publics. In: W.T. Coombs and S.J. Holladay (eds.) The Handbook of Crisis Communication. Malden, MA: Willey-Blackwell, pp. 1–13.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Heinze, J., Uhlmann, E.L. and Diermeier, D. (2014) ‘Unlikely allies: Credibility transfer during a corporate crisis’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(5), 392–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helm, S. (2011) ‘Employees’ awareness of their impact on corporate reputation’, Journal of Business Research, 64(7), 657–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helsloot, I. and Groenendaal, J. (2013) ‘Twitter: An underutilized potential during sudden crises?’, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 21(3), 178–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoye, G.V. and Lievens, F. (2007) ‘Investigating web-based recruitment sources: Employee testimonial vs word-of-mouse’, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15(4), 372–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hovland, C.I. and Weiss, W. (1951) ‘The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 635–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hung-Baesecke, C.F. and Chen, Y.-R.R. (2013) The effects of organization-public relationship types and quality on crisis attributes. In: K. Sriramesh, A. Zerfass and J.-N. Kim (eds.) Public Relations and Communication Management: Current Trends and Emerging Topics. New York: Routledge, pp. 225–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jin, Y., Liu, B.F. and Austin, L.L. (2014) ‘Examining the role of social media in effective crisis management: The effects of crisis origin, information form, and source on publics’ crisis response’, Communication Research, 41(1), 74–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiambi, D.M. and Shafer, A. (2016) ‘Corporate crisis communication: Examining the interplay of reputation and crisis response strategies’, Mass Communication and Society, 19, 127–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., Avery, E.J. and Lariscy, R.W. (2009) ‘Are crisis communicators practicing what we preach?: An evaluation of crisis response strategy analyzed in public relations research from 1991 to 2009’, Public Relations Review, 35(4), 446–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, B., Hong, S. and Cameron, G.T. (2014) ‘What corporations say matters more than what they say they do? A test of a truth claim and transparency in press releases on corporate websites and Facebook pages’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 91(4), 811–829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiousis, S. and Dimitrova, D.V. (2006) ‘Differential impact of Web site content: Exploring the influence of source (public relations versus news), modality, and participation on college students’ perceptions’, Public Relations Review, 32(2), 177–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, B.K. (2005) ‘Hong Kong consumers’ evaluation in an airline crash: A path model analysis’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 17(4), 363–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, B.F., Austin, L. and Jin, Y. (2011). ‘How publics respond to crisis communication strategies: The interplay of information form and source’, Public Relations Review, 37(4), 345–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, B.F., Jin, Y., Briones, R. and Kuch, B. (2012) ‘Managing turbulence in the blogosphere: Evaluating the blog-mediated crisis communication model with the American Red Cross’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 24(4), 353–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, L.J. and Cameron, G.T. (2004) ‘A relational approach examining the interplay of prior reputation and immediate response to a crisis’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 16(3), 213–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mack, R., Blose, J.E. and Pan, B. (2008) ‘Believe it or not: Credibility of blogs in tourism’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(2), 133–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcus, A.A. and Goodman, R.S. (1991) ‘Victims and shareholders: The dilemmas of presenting corporate policy during a crisis’, Academy of Management Journal, 34(2), 281–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metzger, M.J., Flanagin, A.J. and Medders, R.B. (2010) ‘Social and heuristic approaches to credibility evaluation online’, Journal of Communication, 60(3), 413–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsson, E.-K. (2014) ‘Crisis communication in public organisations: Dimensions of crisis communication revisited’, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 22(2), 113–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parquette. M. (2015) ‘Renewal or re-entrenchment? A case study of 2011 education union crisis’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 27(4), 337–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H. and Cameron, G.T. (2014) ‘Keeping it real: Exploring the roles of conversational human voice and source credibility in crisis communication via blogs’, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 91(3), 487–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, A. (2012) ‘How public use social media to respond to blame games in crisis communication: The Love Parade tragedy in Duisburg 2010’, Public Relations Review, 38(3), 430–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scoble, R. and Israel, S. (2006) Naked Conversations: How Blogs are Changing the Way Business Talk with Customers. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sohn, Y.J. and Lariscy, R. (2012) ‘Resource-based crisis management: The important role of the CEO’s reputation’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 24(4), 318–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stavrositu, C. and Sundar, S. (2008) ‘If Internet credibility is so iffy, why the heavy use? The relationship between medium use and credibility’, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(1), 65–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens, K.K. and Malone, P. (2010) New media for crisis communication: Opportunities for technical translation, dialogue, and stakeholder responses. In: W.T. Coombs and S.J. Holladay (eds.) The Handbook of Crisis Communication. Malden, MA: Willey-Blackwell, pp. 17–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweetser, K.D. and Metzgar, E. (2007) ‘Communicating during a crisis: Use of blogs as a relationship management tool’, Public Relations Review, 33(3), 340–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tormala, Z.L., Briñol, P. and Petty, R.E. (2006) ‘When credibility attacks: The reverse impact of source credibility on persuasion’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(5), 684–691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turk, J.V., Jin, Y., Stewart, S., Kim, J. and Hipple, J.R. (2012) ‘Examining the interplay of an organization’s prior reputation, CEO’s visibility, and immediate response to a crisis’, Public Relations Review, 38(4), 574–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ulmer, R.R., Sellnow, T.L. and Seeger, M.W. (2010) Considering the future of crisis communication research: Understanding the opportunities inherent to crisis events through the discourse of renewal. In: W.T. Coombs and S.J. Holladay (eds.) The Handbook of Crisis Communication. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 691–697.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • U. S. Census Bureau. (2010) 2010 Census Data, https://www.census.gov/2010census/data/, accessed 20 September 2016.

  • van Noort, G. and Willemsen, L.M. (2012) ‘Online damage control: The effects of proactive versus reactive webcare interventions in consumer-generated platforms’, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 26(3), 131–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Zoonen, W., and van der Meer, T.V. (2015) ‘The importance of source and credibility perception in times of crisis: Crisis communication in a socially mediated era’, Journal of Public Relations Research, 27(5), 371–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Zoonen, W., van der Meer, T.G.L.A. and Verhoeven, J.W.M. (2014) ‘Employees work-related social media use: His master’s voice’, Public Relations Review, 40(5): 850–852.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. (2016) ‘Brand crisis communication through social media: A dialogue between brand competitors on Sina Weibo’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 21(4), 56–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, H.-C. and Doong, H.-S. (2010) ‘Argument form and spokesperson type: The recommendation strategy of virtual salespersons’, International Journal of Information Management, 30(6), 493–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westerman, D., Spence, P.R. and Van Der Heide, B. (2014) ‘Social media as information source: Recency of updates and credibility of information’, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(2), 171–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, S.-U., Kang, M. and Johnson, P. (2010) ‘Effects of narratives, openness to dialogic communication, and credibility on engagement in crisis communication through organizational blogs’, Communication Research, 37(4), 473–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. J. William and Mary Diederich College of Communication, Marquette University, Johnston Hall, Rm#413, Milwaukee, WI, 53233, USA

    Young Kim

  2. Manship School of Mass Communication, Louisiana State University, 243 Hodges Hall, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA

    Hyojung Park

Authors
  1. Young Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hyojung Park
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Young Kim.

Appendix A: Examples of Facebook Messages with Fictitious Crisis Scenarios

Appendix A: Examples of Facebook Messages with Fictitious Crisis Scenarios

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kim, Y., Park, H. Is there Still a PR Problem Online? Exploring the Effects of Different Sources and Crisis Response Strategies in Online Crisis Communication Via Social Media. Corp Reputation Rev 20, 76–104 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-017-0016-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-017-0016-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation