Abstract
Four aspects of the debate between Hofstede and Javidan et al. are highlighted. First, it is shown that characterizing cultures either on the basis of aggregated self-perceptions or on the basis of aggregated perceptions of others in one's society are not equivalent procedures. Each has inherent errors, and neither can be considered as providing the one best way to denote national cultures. Furthermore, the number of dimensions of national culture that can be usefully studied must be proportional to the limited number of nations available for comparative analyses. Third, although Hofstede and Javidan et al. appear to differ on optimal ways of aggregating individual-level data to the nation level, both appear to have done so in a way that does not prevent detection of differing relations between items at different levels of analysis. Finally, we need greater clarity as to the ways in which national wealth relates to other aspects of culture. It is a major component of contemporary national cultures, and must be retained as an element within nation-level analyses.
References
Bond, M.H. et al. (2004) ‘Culture-level dimensions of social axioms and their correlates across 41 cultures’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35 (5): 548–570.
Fischer, R. (in press) ‘Congruence and functions of personal and cultural values: do my values reflect my culture's values?’ Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
Georgas, J., van de Vijver, F. and Berry, J. (2004) ‘The ecocultural framework, ecosocial indices and psychological variable in cross-cultural research’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35 (1): 74–96.
Hanges, P.J. and Dickson, M.W. (2006) ‘Agitation over aggregation: clarifying the development of and the nature of the GLOBE scales’, Leadership Quarterly, doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.06.004.
Heine, S.J., Lehman, D.R., Peng, K.P. and Greenholtz, J. (2002) ‘What's wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective likert scales? The Reference Group Effect’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (6): 903–918.
Hofstede, G. (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage: Beverly Hills, CA.
Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations, Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.
Hofstede, G. (2006) ‘What did GLOBE really measure? Researchers’ Minds vs Respondents’ Minds’, Journal of International Business Studies 37 (6), doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400233.
House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., Gupta, V. and GLOBE associates (2004) Leadership, Culture and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Nations, Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.
Inglehart, R. (1997) Modernization and Post-Modernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Nations, Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ.
Inglehart, R. and Baker, W.E. (2000) ‘Modernization, cultural change and the persistence of traditional values’, American Sociological Review 65 (1): 19–51.
Javidan, M., House, R.J., Dorfman, P., Hanges, P. and Sully de Luque, M. (2006) ‘Conceptualizing cultures and their consequences: a comparative review of GLOBE's and hofstede's approaches’, Journal of International Business Studies 37 (6), doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400234.
Kitayama, S. (2002) ‘Culture and basic psychological processes – toward a system view of culture: comment on Oyserman et al. (2002)’, Psychological Bulletin 128 (1): 89–96.
MacSweeney, B. (2002) ‘Hofstede's model of national cultural differences and their consequences: a triumph of faith; a failure of analysis’, Human Relations 55 (1): 89–118.
McCrae, R.R. et al. (2005) ‘Universal features of personality traits from the observer's perspective: data from 50 cultures’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (3): 547–561.
Miller, J.G. (2002) ‘Bringing culture to basic psychological theory – beyond individualism and collectivism: comment on Oyserman et al. (2002)’, Psychological Bulletin 128 (1): 97–109.
Oyserman, D., Coon, H.M. and Kemmelmeier, M. (2002) ‘Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses’, Psychological Bulletin 128 (1): 3–72.
Peabody, D. and Shmelyov, A.G. (1996) ‘Psychological characteristics of Russians’, European Journal of Social Psychology 26 (3): 507–512.
Peterson, M.F. and Castro, S.L. (in press) ‘Measurement metrics at aggregate levels of analysis: implications for the GLOBE project and organization culture research’, Leadership Quarterly.
Schwartz, S.H. (1994) ‘Beyond individualism/collectivism: new dimensions of values’, in U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S.C. Choi, S.C. and G. Yoon (eds.), Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Application and Methods, Sage: Newbury Park, CA, pp: 85–119.
Schwartz, S.H. (2004) ‘Mapping and interpreting cultural differences around the world’, in H. Vinken, J. Soeters and P. Ester (eds.), Comparing Cultures: Dimensions of Culture in a Comparative Perspective, Brill: Leiden, NL, pp: 43–73.
Smith, P.B. (2004) ‘Nations, cultures and individuals: new dilemmas and old perspectives’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35 (1): 6–12.
Smith, P.B., Dugan, S. and Trompenaars, F. (1996) ‘National culture and managerial values: a dimensional analysis across 43 nations’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27 (2): 252–285.
Smith, P.B. et al. (2002) ‘Cultural values, sources of guidance and their relevance to managerial behavior’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 33 (2): 188–208.
Van de Vliert, E. (2003) ‘Thermoclimate, culture, and poverty as country-level roots of workers wages’, Journal of International Business Studies 34 (1): 1–15.
Van de Vliert, E. (2006) ‘Autocratic leadership around the globe: do climate and wealth drive leadership culture?’ Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 37 (1): 42–59.
Van de Vliert, E. and Smith, P.B. (2004) ‘Leader reliance on subordinates across nations that differ in development and climate’, Leadership Quarterly 15 (3): 381–403.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Accepted by Kwok Leung, Deputy Editor-in-Chief, 5 June 2006. This paper has been with the author for two revisions.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Smith, P. When elephants fight, the grass gets trampled: the GLOBE and Hofstede projects. J Int Bus Stud 37, 915–921 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400235
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400235