Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate-reducing bacteria

Nature Reviews Microbiology volume 6, pages 441–454 (2008)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Sulphate reducers have the unique ability to respire using sulphate as an electron acceptor. Sulphate-reducing bacteria and archaea are ubiquitous in the environment. The sulphate reducers that have been isolated and described thus far can be divided into seven phylogenetic lineages, five within the Bacteria and two within the Archaea. Most sulphate reducers belong to approximately 23 genera, with the Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the Deltaproteobacteria and the Gram-positive bacteria within the Clostridia.

  • Sulphate reducers can thrive in a broad range of environmental conditions. They have been detected in shallow marine and freshwater sediments and in deep subsurface environments, such as oil wells, hydrothermal vents and mud volcanoes. They occur in environments with extremely low or high pH, extremely low or high temperature and high or low salt concentrations. They are also present in living organisms, such as ruminants and in the human intestinal tract. In marine worms, they form an intimate relationship with aerobic sulphide-oxidizing bacteria.

  • Sulphate reducers play a key part in the carbon and sulphur cycles. They are extremely versatile with respect to the electron donors and electron acceptors that are used for growth. They can grow in a sulphate-dependent manner using hydrogen and a wide range of organic compounds. However, polymeric compounds (polysaccharides and proteins) are not typically used by sulphate reducers. Although named after their ability to respire using sulphate, other inorganic compounds can also be used as electron acceptors. Some sulphate reducers can even respire with oxygen.

  • In environmental biotechnology, sulphate reducers have an important role. One unwanted effect is the production of hydrogen sulphide in anaerobic digesters that are used for waste and waste-water treatment and its role in the corrosion of iron and steel. However, sulphate reducers are also beneficially used in biotechnological processes to remove heavy metals and oxidized sulphur compounds from gas and water. In nature, sulphate reducers live in close vicinity with other microorganisms, which results in metabolic interactions with other anaerobes. In the presence of sulphate, they compete with methanogens and acetogens for common substrates, such as hydrogen and acetate. In the absence of sulphate, however, sulphate reducers grow acetogenically in syntrophy with methanogens. The complete genomes of different sulphate reducers have been, or are currently being, sequenced. Comparative analysis of these genome sequences will provide important information on their carbon and sulphur metabolism and open up the possibility for functional genomics.

Abstract

Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are anaerobic microorganisms that use sulphate as a terminal electron acceptor in, for example, the degradation of organic compounds. They are ubiquitous in anoxic habitats, where they have an important role in both the sulphur and carbon cycles. SRB can cause a serious problem for industries, such as the offshore oil industry, because of the production of sulphide, which is highly reactive, corrosive and toxic. However, these organisms can also be beneficial by removing sulphate and heavy metals from waste streams. Although SRB have been studied for more than a century, it is only with the recent emergence of new molecular biological and genomic techniques that we have begun to obtain detailed information on their way of life.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: The sulphur cycle.
Figure 2: Sulphur transformations.
Figure 3: The sequential pattern of microbial degradation of complex organic matter in anoxic environments in the presence and absence of sulphate.
Figure 4: Phylogenetic tree based on nearly complete 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences of described sulphate-reducing bacterial species.
Figure 5: Schematic overview of the THIOPAQ process to remove sulphate and heavy metals from waste water.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Jørgensen, B. B. Mineralization of organic matter in the seabed — the role of sulphate reduction. Nature 296, 643–645 (1982).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Rabus, R., Hansen, T. A. & Widdel, F. in The Prokaryotes (eds Dworkin, M., Schleifer, K.-H. & Stackebrandt, E.) 659–768 (Springer Verlag, New York, 2006). An excellent overview of the physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology of sulphate- and sulphur-reducing prokaryotes.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  3. Widdel, F. Anaerober Abbau von Fettsäuren und Benzoesäure durch neu Isolierte Arten Sulfat-reduzierender Bakterien. Thesis, Göttingen Univ. (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Brandis-Heep, A., Gebhardt, N. A., Thauer, R. K., Widdel, F. & Pfennig, N. Anaerobic acetate oxidation to CO2 by Desulfobacter postgatei. I. Demonstration of all enzymes required for the operation of the citric acid cycle. Arch. Microbiol. 136, 222–229 (1983).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Schauder, R., Eikmanns, B., Thauer, T. K., Widdel, F. & Fuchs, G. Acetate oxidation to CO2 in anaerobic bacteria via a novel pathway not involving reactions of the citric acid cycle. Arch. Microbiol. 145, 162–172 (1986).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Oude Elferink, S. J. W. H., Akkermans-van Vliet, W. M., Bogte, J. J. & Stams, A. J. M. Desulfobacca acetoxidans gen. nov. sp. nov., a novel acetate-degrading sulphate reducer isolated from sulfidogenic sludge. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49, 345–350 (1999).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ollivier, B., Cord-Ruwisch, R., Hatchikian, E. C. & Garcia, J.-L. Characterization of Desulfovibrio fructosovorans sp. nov. Arch. Microbiol. 149, 447–450 (1988).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Sass, A., Rutters, H., Cypionka, H. & Sass, H. Desulfobulbus mediterraneus sp. nov., a sulphate-reducing bacterium growing on mono- and disaccharides. Arch. Microbiol. 177, 468–474 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Baena, S., Fardeau, M.-L., Labat, M., Ollivier, B., Garcia, J.-L. & Patel, B. K. C. Desulfovibrio aminophilus sp. nov., a novel amino acid degrading and sulphate reducing bacterium from an anaerobic dairy wastewater lagoon. J. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 21, 498–504 (1998).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Stams, A. J. M., Hansen, T. A. & Skyring, G. W. Utilization of amino acids as energy substrates by two marine Desulfovibrio strains. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 31, 11–15 (1985).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Nanninga, H. J. & Gottschal, J. C. Properties of Desulfovibrio carbinolicus sp. nov. and other sulfate reducing bacteria isolated from an anaerobic purification plant. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53, 802–809 (1987).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Nazina, T. N., Ivanova, A. E., Kanchaveli, L. P. & Rozanova, E. P. A new sporeforming thermophilic methylotrophic sulphate-reducing bacterium, Desulfotomaculum kuznetsovii sp. nov. Mikrobiologiia 57, 823–827 (1987).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Parshina, S. N. et al. Desulfotomaculum carboxydovorans sp. nov., a novel sulphate-reducing bacterium capable of growth at 100% CO. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 55, 2159–2165 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Henstra, A. M., Dijkema, C. & Stams, A. J. M. Archaeoglobus fulgidus couples CO oxidation to sulphate reduction and acetogenesis with transient formate accumulation. Environ. Microbiol. 9, 1836–1841 (2007). Described growth of the sulphate-reducing archaeon A. fulgidus on carbon monoxide, both in the presence and absence of sulphate.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Tanimoto, Y. & Bak, F. Anaerobic degradation of methylmercaptan and dimethyl sulfide by newly isolated thermophilic sulfate-reducing bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60, 2450–2455 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Bak, F. & Pfennig, N. Chemolithotrophic growth of Desulfovibrio sulfodismutans sp. nov. by disproportionation of inorganic compounds. Arch. Microbiol. 147, 184–189 (1987). Showed for the first time that some sulphate reducers can grow by dismutation of the inorganic sulphur compounds sulphite and thiosulphate.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bottcher, M. E., Thamdrup, B., Gehre, M. & Theune, A. S34/S32 and O18/O16 fractionation during sulphur disproportionation by Desulfobulbus propionicus. Geomicrobiol. J. 22, 219–226 (2005).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Rabus, R., Nordhaus, R., Ludwig, W. & Widdel, F. Complete oxidation of toluene under strictly anoxic conditions by a new sulfate-reducing bacterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59, 1444–1451 (1993).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Harms, G. et al. Anaerobic oxidation of o-xylene, m-xylene, and homologous alkylbenzenes by new types of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 999–1004 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Morasch, B., Schink, B., Tebbe, C. C. & Meckenstock, R. U. Degradation of o-xylene and m-xylene by a novel sulphate-reducer belonging to the genus Desulfotomaculum. Arch. Microbiol. 181, 407–417 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Aeckersberg, F., Rainey, F. A. & Widdel, F. Growth, natural relationships, cellular fatty acids and metabolic adaptation of sulfate-reducing bacteria that utilize long-chain alkanes under anoxic conditions. Arch. Microbiol. 170, 361–369 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. So, C. M. & Young, L. Y. Isolation and characterization of a sulfate-reducing bacterium that anaerobically degrades alkanes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 2969–2976 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Davidova, I. A., Duncan, K. E., Choi, O. K. & Suflita, J. M. Desulfoglaeba alkanexedens gen. nov., sp. nov., an n-alkane-degrading, sulphate-reducing bacterium. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 56, 2737–2742 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Cravo-Laureau, C., Matheron, R., Cayol, J.-L., Joulian, C. & Hirschler-Réa, A. Desulfatibacillum aliphaticivorans gen. nov., spec. nov., and n-alkane- and n-alkene-degrading, sulphate-reducing bacterium. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54, 77–83 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Grossi, V. et al. Anaerobic 1-alkene metabolism by the alkane- and alkene-degrading sulfate-reducer Desulfatibacillum aliphaticivorans strain CV2803T. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 7882–7890 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Kniemeyer, O. et al. Anaerobic oxidation of short-chain hydrocarbons by marine sulphate-reducing bacteria. Nature 449, 898–901 (2007). This interesting paper describes, for the first time, the anaerobic oxidation of the short-chain hydrocarbons ethane, propane and butane by SRB.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Reeburgh, W. S. Methane consumption in Cariaco trench waters and sediments. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 28, 337–344 (1976).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Hoehler, T. M., Alperin, M. J., Albert, D. B. & Martens, C. S. Field and laboratory studies of methane oxidation in an anoxic sediment — evidence for a methanogen–sulphate reducer consortium. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 8, 451–463 (1994).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Boetius, A. et al. A marine microbial consortium apparently mediating anaerobic oxidation of methane. Nature 407, 623–626 (2000). Showed that anaerobic methane oxidation is mediated by a syntrophic consortium of archaea and SRB.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Orphan, V. J. et al. Comparative analysis of methane-oxidizing archaea and sulfate-reducing bacteria in anoxic marine sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67, 1922–1934 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Nauhaus, K., Albrecht, M., Elvert, M., Boetius, A. & Widdel F. In vitro cell growth of marine archaeal–bacterial consortia during anaerobic oxidation of methane with sulphate. Environ. Microbiol. 9, 187–196 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Wilms, R., Sass, H., Kopke, B., Cypionka, H. & Engelen, B. Methane and sulphate profiles within the subsurface of a tidal flat are reflected by the distribution of sulphate-reducing bacteria and methanogenic archaea. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 59, 611–621 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Nauhaus, K., Boetius, A., Krüger, M. & Widdel, F. In vitro demonstration of anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to sulphate reduction in sediment from a marine gas hydrate area. Environ. Microbiol. 4, 296–305 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Moran, J. J. et al. Methyl sulfides as intermediates in the anaerobic oxidation of methane. Environ. Microbiol. 10, 162–173 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Heijs, S. K., Haese, R. R., van der Wielen, P. W., Forney, L. J. & van Elsas, J. D. Use of 16S rRNA gene based clone libraries to assess microbial communities potentially involved in anaerobic methane oxidation in a Mediterranean cold seep. Microb. Ecol. 53, 384–398 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Lösekann, T. et al. Diversity and abundance of aerobic and anaerobic methane oxidizers at the Haakon Mosby Mud Volcano, Barents Sea. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 3348–3362 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Leloup, J. et al. Diversity and abundance of sulphate-reducing microorganisms in the sulphate and methane zones of a marine sediment, Black Sea. Environ. Microbiol. 9, 131–142 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Fitz, R. M. & Cypionka, H. Formation of thiosulphate and trithionate during sulphite reduction by washed cells of Desulfovibrio desulphuricans. Arch. Microbiol. 154, 400–406 (1990).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Broco, M., Rousset, M., Oliveira, S. & Rodrigues-Pousada, C. Deletion of flavoredoxin gene in Desulfvibrio gigas reveals its participation in thiosulphate reduction. FEBS Lett. 579, 4803–4807 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Badziong, W. & Thauer, R. K. Growth yields and growth rates of Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Marburg) growing on hydrogen plus sulphate and hydrogen plus thiosulphate as sole energy sources. Arch. Microbiol. 117, 209–214 (1978).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Thauer, R. K., Stackebrandt, E. & Hamilton, W. A. in Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria: Environmental and Engineered Systems (eds Barton, L. L. & Hamilton, W. A.) 1–37 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  42. Odom, J. M. & Peck, H. D. Hydrogen cycling as a general mechanism for energy coupling in the sulphate-reducing bacteria, Desulfovibrio sp. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 12, 47–50 (1981).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Dalsgaard, T. & Bak, F. Nitrate reduction in a sulfate-reducing bacterium, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, isolated from rice paddy soil: sulphide inhibition, kinetics, and regulation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60, 291–297 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. López-Cortés, A., Fardeau, M. L., Fauque, G., Joulian, C. & Ollivier, B. Reclassification of the sulphate- and nitrate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio vulgaris subsp. oxamicus as Desulfovibrio oxamicus sp. nov., comb. nov. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 56, 1495–1499 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Keith, S. M. & Herbert, R. A. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction by a strain of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 18, 55–59 (1983).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Moura, I., Bursakov, S., Costa, C. & Moura, J. J. G. Nitrate and nitrite utilization in sulphate-reducing bacteria. Anaerobe 3, 279–290 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Lovley, D. R., Roden, E. E., Phillips, E. J. P. & Woodward, J. C. Enzymatic iron and uranium reduction by sulphate-reducing bacteria. Mar. Geol. 113, 41–53 (1993).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Park, H. S., Lin, S. & Voordouw, G. Ferric iron reduction by Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough wild type and energy metabolism mutants. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 93, 79–85 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Lovley, D. R. & Phillips, E. J. Reduction of uranium by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58, 850–856 (1992).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Lloyd, J. R., Ridley, J., Khizniak, T., Lyalikova, N. N. & Macaskie, L. E. Reduction of technetium by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans: biocatalyst characterization and use in a flowthrough bioreactor. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 2691–2696 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Tucker, M. D., Barton, L. L. & Thompson, B. M. Reduction of Cr, Mo, Se and U by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans immobilized in polyacrylamide gels. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 20, 13–19 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Lovley, D. R. & Phillips, E. J. Reduction of chromate by Desulfovibrio vulgaris and its c 3 cytochrome. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60, 726–728 (1994).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Macy, J. M., Santini, J. M., Pauling, B. V., O'Neill, A. H. & Sly, L. I. Two new arsenate/sulphate-reducing bacteria: mechanisms of arsenate reduction. Arch. Microbiol. 173, 49–57 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Jonkers, H. M., van der Maarel, M. J. E. C., van Gemerden, H. & Hansen, T. A. Dimethylsulfoxide reduction by marine sulphate-reducing bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 136, 283–287 (1996).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Lie, T. J., Pitta, T., Leadbetter, E. R., Godchaux, W. 3rd & Leadbetter, J. R. Sulfonates: novel electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration. Arch. Microbiol. 166, 204–210 (1996).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dolfing, J. & Tiedje, J. M. Kinetics of two complementary hydrogen sink reactions in a defined 3-chlorobenzoate degrading methanogenic co-culture. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 86, 25–32 (1991).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. DeWeerd, K. A. A., Mandelco, L., Tanner, R. S., Woese, C. R. & Suflita, J. M. Desulfomonile tiedjei gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel, anaerobic, dehalogenating, sulphate-reducing bacterium. Arch. Microbiol. 154, 23–30 (1990).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Bryant, M. P., Campbell, L. L., Reddy, C. A. & Crabill, M. R. Growth of Desulfovibrio in lactate or ethanol media low in sulfate in association with H2-utilizing methanogenic bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 33, 1162–1169 (1977). The role of SRB in sulphate-depleted methanogenic environments became apparent.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Chartrain, M. & Zeikus, J. G. Microbial ecophysiology of whey biomethanation: characterization of bacterial trophic populations and prevalent species in continuous culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 51, 188–196 (1986).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Schink, B. & Stams, A. J. M. in The Prokaryotes (eds Dworkin, M., Schleifer, K.-H. & Stackebrandt, E.) 309–335 (Springer Verlag, New York, 2006).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  61. Plugge, C. M., Balk, M. & Stams, A. J. M. Desulfotomaculum thermobenzoicum subsp. thermosyntrophicum subsp. nov., a thermophilic, syntrophic, propionate-oxidizing, spore-forming bacterium. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 52, 391–399 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Boone, D. R. & Bryant, M. P. Propionate-degrading bacterium, Syntrophobacter wolinii sp. nov. gen. nov., from methanogenic ecosystems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 40, 626–632 (1980).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Wallrabenstein, C., Hauschild, E. & Schink, B. Pure culture and cytological properties of Syntrophobacter wolinii. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 123, 249–254 (1994).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Harmsen, H., Wullings, B., Akkermans, A. D. L., Ludwig, W. & Stams, A. J. M. Phylogenetic analysis of Syntrophobacter wolinii reveals a relationship with sulphate-reducing bacteria. Arch. Microbiol. 160, 238–240 (1993).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Stams, A. J. M., Oude Elferink, S. J. W. H. & Westermann, P. Metabolic interactions between methanogenic consortia and anaerobic respiring bacteria. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 81, 31–56 (2003).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Brysch, K., Schneider, C., Fuchs, G. & Widdel, F. Lithoautotrophic growth of sulphate-reducing bacteria, and description of Desulfobacterium autotrophicum gen. nov., sp. nov. Arch. Microbiol. 148, 264–274 (1987).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Weijma, J. et al. Competition for H2 between sulphate reducers, methanogens and homoacetogens in a gas-lift reactor. Water Sci. Technol. 45, 75–80 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Schönheit, P., Kristjansson, J. K. & Thauer, R. K. Kinetic mechanism for the ability of sulphate reducers to out-compete methanogens for acetate. Arch. Microbiol. 132, 285–288 (1982).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Oude Elferink, S. J. W. H., Visser, A., Hulshoff-Pol, L. W. & Stams, A. J. M. Sulphate reduction in methanogenic bioreactors. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 15, 119–136 (1994).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Omil, F., Lens, P., Visser, A., Hulshoff Pol, L. W. & Lettinga, G. Long-term competition between sulphate reducing and methanogenic bacteria in UASB reactors treating volatile fatty acids. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 57, 676–685 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Laanbroek, H. J., Geerligs, H. J., Sijtsma, L. & Veldkamp, H. Competition for sulfate and ethanol among Desulfobacter, Desulfobulbus, and Desulfovibrio species isolated from intertidal sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 47, 329–334 (1984).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Parkes, R. J. in Ecology of Microbial Communities (eds Fletcher, M., Gray, T. R. & Jones, J. G.) 147–177 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987).

    Google Scholar 

  73. Mori, K., Kim, H., Kakegawa, T. & Hanada, S. A novel lineage of sulphate-reducing microorganisms: Thermodesulfobiaceae fam. nov., Thermodesulfobium narugense, gen. nov., sp. nov. a new thermophilic isolate from a hot spring. Extremophiles 7, 283–290 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Itoh, T., Suzuki, K-I. & Nakase, T. Thermocladium modestius gen. nov., sp. nov. a new genus of rod-shaped, extremely thermophilic crenarchaeote. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48, 879–887 (1998).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Itoh, T., Suzuki, K-I., Sanches, P. C. & Nakase, T. Caldivirga maquilingensis gen. nov., sp. nov. a new genus of rod-shaped crenarchaeote isolated from a hot spring in the Philippines. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49, 1157–1163 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Daly, K., Sharp, R. J. & McCarthy, A. J. Development of oligonucleotide probes and PCR primers for detecting phylogenetic subgroups of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Microbiology 146, 1693–1705 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Wagner, M., Roger, A. J., Flax, J. L., Brusseau, G. A. & Stahl, D. A. Phylogeny of dissimilatory sulfite reductases supports an early origin of sulfate respiration. J. Bacteriol. 180, 2975–2982 (1998).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Meyer, B. & Kuever, J. Phylogeny of the alpha and beta subunits of the dissimilatory adenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (APS) reductase from sulfate-reducing prokaryotes — origin and evolution of the dissimilatory sulfate-reduction pathway. Microbiology 153, 2026–2044 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Dhillon, A., Teske, A., Dillon, J., Stahl, D. A. & Sogin, M. L. Molecular characterization of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the Guaymas Basin. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 2765–2772.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Dar, S. A., Kuenen, J. G. & Muyzer, G. Nested PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis approach to determine the diversity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in complex microbial communities. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 2325–2330 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Dar, S. A., Yao, L., van Dongen, U., Kuenen, J. G. & Muyzer, G. Analysis of diversity and activity of sulfate-reducing bacterial communities in sulfidogenic bioreactors using 16S rRNA and dsrB genes as molecular markers. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 594–604 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Geets, J. et al. DsrB gene-based DGGE for community and diversity surveys of sulphate-reducing bacteria. J. Microbiol. Methods 66, 194–205 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Minz, D. et al. Diversity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in oxic and anoxic regions of a microbial mat characterized by comparative analysis of dissimilatory sulfite reductase genes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 4666–4671 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Meyer, B. & Kuever, J. Molecular analysis of the diversity of sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing prokaryotes in the environment, using the aprA as functional marker gene. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 7664–7679 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Loy, A. et al. Oligonucleotide microarray for 16S rRNA gene-based detection of all recognized lineages of sulfate-reducing prokaryotes in the environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68, 5064–5081 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Loy, A. et al. Microarray and functional gene analyses of sulfate-reducing prokaryotes in low sulfate acidic fens reveal co-occurrence of recognized genera and novel lineages. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 6998–7009 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Stubner, S. Enumeration of 16S rDNA of Desulfotomaculum lineage 1 in rice fields soil by real-time PCR with SybrGreen detection. J. Microbiol. Methods 50, 155–164 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Stubner, S. Quantification of Gram-negative sulphate-reducing bacteria in rice field soil by 16S rRNA gene-targeted real-time PCR. J. Microbiol. Methods 57, 219–230 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Foti, M. et al. Diversity, activity, and abundance of sulfate-reducing bacteria in saline and hypersaline soda lakes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 2093–2100 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Ben-Dov, E., Brenner, A. & Kushmaro, A. Quantification of sulfate-reducing bacteria in industrial wastewater by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using dsrA and apsA genes. Microb. Ecol. 54, 439–451 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Neretin, L. N. et al. Quantification of dissimilatory (bi)sulphite reductase gene expression in Desulfobacterium autotrophicum using real-time RT-PCR. Environ. Microbiol. 5, 660–671 (2003).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Lückner, S. et al. Improved 16S rRNA-targeted probe set for analysis of sulfate-reducing bacteria by fluorescence in situ hybridization. J. Microbiol. Methods 69, 523–528 (2007).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Stahl, D. A., Loy, A. & Wagner, M. in Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria: Environmental and Engineered Systems (eds Barton, L. L. & Hamilton, W. A.) 167–183 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).

    Google Scholar 

  94. Mussmann, M., Ishii, K., Rabus, R. & Amann, R. Diversity and vertical distribution of cultured and uncultured Deltaproteobacteria in an intertidal mud flat of the Wadden Sea. Environ. Microbiol. 7, 405–418 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Ito, T. et al. Phylogenetic identification and substrate uptake patterns of sulfate-reducing bacteria inhabiting an oxic–anoxic sewer biofilm determined by combining microautoradiography and fluorescence in situ hybridization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68, 356–364 (2002).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Boschker, H. T. S. et al. Direct linking of microbial populations to specific biogeochemical processes by 13C-labelling of biomarkers. Nature 392, 801–804 (1998).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Webster, G. et al. A comparison of stable isotope probing of DNA and phospholipids fatty acids to study prokaryotic functional diversity in sulfate-reducing marine sediment enrichment slurries. Environ. Microbiol. 8, 1575–1589 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Ramsing, N. B., Kühl, M. & Jørgensen, B. B. Distribution of sulfate-reducing bacteria, O2, and H2S in photosynthetic biofilms determined by oligonucleotide probes and microelectrodes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59, 3840–3849 (1993).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  99. Wawer, C., Jetten, M. S. & Muyzer, G. Genetic diversity and expression of the NiFe hydrogenase large-subunit gene of Desulfovibrio spp. in environmental samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 4360–4369 (1997).

    Google Scholar 

  100. Ravenschlag, K., Sahm, K., Knoblauch, C., Jørgensen, B. B. & Amann, R. Community structure, cellular rRNA content, and activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in marine Arctic sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 3592–3602 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Jeanthon, C. et al. Thermodesulfobacterium hydrogeniphilum sp. nov., a thermophilic, chemolithoautotrophic sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent at Guaymas Basin and emendation of the genus Thermodesulfobacterium. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 52, 765–772 (2002).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Knittel, K. et al. Activity, distribution, and diversity of sulfate reducers and other bacteria in sediments above gas hydrate (Cascadia Margin, Oregon). Geomicrobiol. J. 20, 269–294 (2003).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Stadnitskaia, A. et al. Biomarker and 16S rDNA evidence for anaerobic oxidation of methane and related carbonate precipitation in deep-sea mud volcanoes of the Sorokin Trough, Black Sea. Mar. Geol. 217, 67–96 (2005).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Rissati, J. B., Capman, W. C. & Stahl, D. A. Community structure of a microbial mat: the phylogenetic dimension. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91, 10173–10177 (1994).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Sen, A. M. Acidophilic Sulphate Reducing Bacteria: Candidates for Bioremediation of Acid Mine Drainage Pollution. Thesis, Univ. Wales (2001).

    Google Scholar 

  106. Nilsen, R. K., Beeder, J., Thostenson, T. & Torsvik, T. Distribution of thermophilic marine sulfate reducers in North Sea oil field waters and oil reservoirs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62, 1793–1798 (1996).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Kovacik, W. P. Jr. Molecular analysis of deep subsurface Cretaceous rock indicates abundant Fe(III)- and S°-reducing bacteria in a sulfate-rich environment. Environ. Microbiol. 8, 141–155 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Sass, H., Wieringa, E., Cypionka, H., Babenzien, H. D. & Overmann, J. High genetic and physiological diversity of sulfate-reducing bacteria isolated from an oligotrophic lake sediment. Arch. Microbiol. 170, 243–251 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Hines, M. E. et al. Molecular phylogenetic and biogeochemical studies of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the rhizosphere of Spartina alterniflora. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 2209–2216 (1999).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Bahr, M. et al. Molecular chacterization of sulfate-reducing bacteria in a New England salt marsh. Environ. Microbiol. 7, 1175–1185 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Dubilier, N. et al. Endosymbiontic sulphate-reducing and sulphide-oxidizing bacteria in an oligochaete worm. Nature 411, 298–302 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Woyke, T. et al. Symbiosis insights through metagenomic analysis of a microbial consortium. Nature 443, 950–955 (2006). Intriguing paper on the symbiosis of four bacteria, two sulphate-reducing and two sulphur-oxidizing, in a gutless marine worm.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Mattorano, D. A. & Merinar, T. Respiratory protection on offshore drilling rigs. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 14, 141–148 (1999).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Kaster, K. M., Grigoriyan, A., Jenneman, G. & Voordouw, G. Effect of nitrate and nitrite on sulphide production by two thermophilic, sulphate-reducing enrichments from an oil field in the North Sea. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 75, 195–203 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Hubert, C. & Voordouw, G. Oil field souring control by nitrate-reducing Sulphurospirillum spp. that outcompete sulfate-reducing bacteria for organic electron donors. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, 2644–2652 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Hulshoff-Pol, L. W., Lens, P. N. L., Stams, A. J. M. & Lettinga, G. Anaerobic treatment of sulphate-rich wastewaters. Biodegradation 9, 213–224 (1998).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Lens, P. N. L., Vallero, M. & Esposito, R. in Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria: Environmental and Engineered Systems (eds Barton L. L. & Hamilton, W. A.) 283–404 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).

    Google Scholar 

  118. Kaufmann, E. N., Little, M. H. & Selvaraj, P. T. A biological process for the reclamation of flue gas desulfurization using mixed sulfate reducing bacteria with inexpensive carbon sources. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 63, 677–693 (1996).

    Google Scholar 

  119. Koschorreck, M. et al. Processes at the sediment water interface after addition of organic matter and lime to an Acid Mine Pit Lake mesocosm. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 1608–1614 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Van Houten, B. H. G. W. et al. Occurrence of methanogenesis during the start-up of a full-scale synthesis gas-fed reactor treating sulphate and metal-rich wastewater. Water Res. 40, 553–560 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Dar, S. A., Stams, A. J., Kuenen, J. G. & Muyzer, G. Co-existence of physiologically similar sulphate-reducing bacteria in a full-scale sulfidogenic bioreactor fed with a single organic electron donor. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 75, 1463–1472 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. van Houten, B. H. G. W. et al. Desulfovibrio paquesii sp. nov., a hydrogenotrophic sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from a full-scale synthesis gas fed bioreactor treating zinc and sulfate-rich wastewater. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. (in the press).

  123. Buisman, C. J. N., Geraats, B. G., Ijspeert, P. & Lettinga, G. Optimisation of sulphur production in a biotechnological sulphide-removing reactor. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 35, 50–56 (1990).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Janssen, A. J. H., Ruitenberg, R. & Buisman, C. J. N. Industrial applications of new sulphur biotechnology. Water Sci. Technol. 44, 85–90 (2001).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Rao, A. G., Ravichandra, P., Joseph, J., Jetty, A. & Sarma, P. N. Microbial conversion of sulphur dioxide in flue gas to sulphide using bulk drug industry wastewater as an organic source by mixed cultures of sulphate reducing bacteria. J. Hazard Mater. 147, 718–725 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Weijma, J., Stams, A. J. M., Hulshoff Pol, L. W. & Lettinga, G. Thermophilic sulphate reduction and methanogenesis with methanol in a high rate anaerobic reactor. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 67, 354–363 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Ingham, C. J. et al. The micro-Petri dish, a million-well growth chip for the culture and high-throughput screening of microorganisms. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 18217–18222 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  128. Wagner, M., Nielsen, P. H., Loy, A., Nielsen, J. L. & Daims, H. Linking microbial community structure with functions: fluorescence in situ hybridization–microautoradiography and isotope arrays. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 17, 83–91 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Dumont, M. G. & Murrell, J. C. Stable isotope probing — linking microbial identity to function. Nature Rev. Microbiol. 3, 499–504 (2005). An excellent overview of the use of SIP in microbial ecology.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Li, T. et al. Simultaneous analysis of microbial identity and function using NanoSIMS. Environ. Microbiol. 10, 580–588 (2008).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. Coleman, J. R., Culley, D. E., Chrisler, W. B. & Brockman, F. J. mRNA-targeted fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) of Gram-negative bacteria without template amplification or tyramide signal amplification. J. Microbiol. Methods 71, 246–255 (2007). This paper describes SIMSISH, a novel approach to identify active community members at a single-cell level.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Klenk, H.-P. et al. The complete genome sequence of the hyperthermophilic, sulphate-reducing archaeon Archaeoglobus fulgidus. Nature 390, 364–370 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Heidelberg, J. F. et al. The genome sequence of the anaerobic, sulphate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough. Nature Biotechnol. 22, 554–559 (2004).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Rabus, R. et al. The genome of Desulfotalea psychrophila, a sulphate-reducing bacterium from permanently cold Arctic sediments. Environ. Microbiol. 6, 887–902 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Mukhopadhyay, A. et al. Salt stress in Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough: an integrated genomics approach. J. Bacteriol. 188, 4068–4078 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  136. Fournier, M. et al. Response of the anaerobe Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough to oxidative conditions: proteome and transcript analysis. Biochimie 88, 85–94 (2006).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Beijerinck, W. M. Über Spirillum desulphuricans als Ursache von Sulfatreduktion. Zentralb. Bakteriol. Parasitk. Infekt. Abt. II 1, 49–59 (1895).

    Google Scholar 

  138. Jørgensen, B. B. The sulphur cycle of a coastal marine sediment (Limfjorden, Denmark). Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 814–832 (1978).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Sass, A. & Cypionka, H. in Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria: Environmental and Engineered Systems (eds Barton, L. L. & Hamilton, W. A.) 167–183 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  140. Mogensen, G. L., Kjeldsen, K. U. & Ingvorsen, K. Desulfovibrio aerotolerans sp. nov., an oxygen tolerant sulphate-reducing bacterium isolated from activated sludge. Anaerobe 11, 339–349 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Kjeldsen, K. U., Joulian, C. & Ingvorsen, K. Oxygen tolerance of sulphate-reducing bacteria in activated sludge. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 2038–2043 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Dilling, W. & Cypionka, H. Aerobic respiration in sulphate-reducing bacteria. Arch. Microbiol. 71, 123–128 (1990). Showed for the first time that some sulphate reducers can use molecular oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Sigalevich, P., Meshorer, E., Helman, Y. & Cohen, Y. Transition from anaerobic to aerobic growth conditions for the sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio oxyclinae results in flocculation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 5005–5012 (2000).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  144. Beech, I. B. & Sunner, J. A. in Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria: Environmental and engineered systems (eds Barton L. L. & Hamilton, W. A.) 459–482 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  145. Lovley, D. R. & Klug, M. J. Sulfate reducers can outcompete methanogens at freshwater sulfate concentrations. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 45, 187–192 (1983).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  146. Ingvorsen, K. & Jørgensen, B. B. Kinetics of sulphate uptake by freshwater and marine species of Desulfovibrio. Arch. Microbiol. 139, 61–66 (1984).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Coetser, S. E. & Cloete, T. E. Biofouling and biocorrosion in industrial water systems. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 31, 213–232 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Madigan, M. T. & Martinko, J. M. Brock — Biology of Microorganisms 11th edn (Pearson Education, London, 2006).

    Google Scholar 

  149. Pruesse, E. et al. SILVA: a comprehensive online resource for quality checked and aligned ribosomal RNA sequence data compatible with ARB. Nucleic Acids Res. 35, 7188–7196 (2007).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  150. Ludwig, W. et al. ARB: a software environment for sequence data. Nucleic Acids Res. 32, 1363–1371 (2004).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Thauer, R. K., Jungermann, K. & Decker, K. Energy conservation in chemotrophic anaerobic bacteria. Bacteriol. Rev. 41, 100–180 (1977). An excellent and still appreciated review on the metabolism of chemotrophic microorganisms.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. We are grateful to L. Robertson, curator of the Beijerinck Museum, for allowing the reproduction of Vibrio desulfuricans. We acknowledge the long-lasting collaboration on sulphur biotechnology between Wageningen University and the Delft University of Technology. A. Janssen and D. Sorokin are thanked for creative discussions. We thank Paques (Balk, The Netherlands) and Shell Global Solutions International B.V. (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) for advice and financial support. Our research was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, division for Earth and Life Sciences and division for Technical Sciences, and the Technology Programme of the Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Dreijenplein 10, 6703 HB, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 67, Delft, 2628 BC, The Netherlands

    Gerard Muyzer & Alfons J. M. Stams

Authors
  1. Gerard Muyzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alfons J. M. Stams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gerard Muyzer.

Related links

Related links

FURTHER INFORMATION

Gerard Muyzer's homepage

Genomes OnLine Database

Paques

ProbeBase

The Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG) Database

The ARB Project

SILVA rRNA database project

Glossary

Chemolithotropic

Metabolism of an organism that obtains energy from inorganic compounds and carbon from carbon dioxide.

Citric acid cycle

A cyclic series of reactions that result in the conversion of acetate to carbon dioxide and NADH.

Acetyl-CoA pathway

A pathway of autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation and acetate oxidation in obligate anaerobes.

Dismutation

The splitting of a chemical compound into two new compounds, one that is more oxidized and one that is more reduced than the original compound.

Syntrophic

Growth of two or more organisms that depend on each other for their growth.

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Synthesis of high-energy phosphate bonds through the reaction of inorganic phosphate with an activated organic substrate.

Homoacetogen

A bacterium that produces acetate as the sole product from sugar fermentation or from hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

Acetoclastic methanogen

A methanogen that uses acetate as a substrate to produce methane and carbon dioxide.

Phospholipid fatty acid

A key component of the cellular membrane of living cells that can be used to identify specific groups of microorganisms and to monitor their physiological state.

CARD-FISH

Fluorescence in situ hybridization with horseradish peroxidase-labelled oligonucleotide probes and fluorochrome-labelled tyramides. The tyramides are deposited at the hybridization site, resulting in enhanced fluorescence intensity.

Microautoradiography

A photographic technique to visualize the uptake of radioactive substrates by single cells.

Stable isotope probing

A technique to identify microorganisms in environmental samples that have taken up a stable isotope-labelled substrate.

Niche differentiation

The tendency for coexisting species to differ in their use of resources.

Acid-mine drainage site

Acid water that contains H2SO4 derived from microbial oxidation of sulphidic minerals.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Muyzer, G., Stams, A. The ecology and biotechnology of sulphate-reducing bacteria. Nat Rev Microbiol 6, 441–454 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1892

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1892

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing