Abstract
A brief multidimensional measure of aversion to women who work (MAWWWS) was developed using data collected from 175 predominantly lower income Anglo American undergraduate and graduate students attending a medium-sized university located in the southern United States. Findings indicated that the 10-item measure exhibited acceptable reliability, as well as adequate convergent and criterion validities. Consequently, the MAWWWS may be a useful measure of employment-related gender attitudes.
REFERENCES
Abu-Saad, I. (1999). Self-esteem among Arab adolescents in Israel. The Journal of Social Psychology, 139, 479-486.
Anderson, C. D., & Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (1995). Patriarchal pressures: An exploration of organizational processes that exacerbate and erode gender earnings inequality. Work and Occupations, 22, 328-356.
Auster, C. J., & Ohm, S. C. (2000). Masculinity and femininity in contemporary American society: A reevaluation using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles, 43, 499-527.
Bhatnagar, D., & Swamy, R. (1995). Attitudes toward women as managers: Does interaction make a difference? Human Relations, 48, 1285-1307.
Brady, T. (1998). How equal is equal pay? Management Review, 87, 59-61.
Browne, B. A. (1997). Gender and beliefs about work force discrimination in the United States and Australia. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 107-116.
Cann, A., & Siegfried, W. D. (1987). Sex stereotypes and the leadership role. Sex Roles, 17, 401-408.
Chang, L., & Chang-McBride, C. (1997). Self-and peer-ratings of female and male roles and attributes. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 527-529.
Colwill, N. L. (1987). Manand womenin organizations: Roles and status, stereotypes and power. In K. S. Koziara, M. H. Moskow, & L.D. Tanner (Eds.), Working women: Past, present, and future (pp. 97-117). Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs.
Conway, M., & Vartanian, L. R. (2000). A status account of gender stereotypes: Beyond communality and agency. Sex Roles, 43, 181-199.
Cooper, V. W. (1997). Homophily or the Queen Bee Syndrome: Female evaluation of female leadership. Small Group Research, 28, 483-499.
Daley, D. M., & Naff, K. C. (1998). Gender differences and managerial competencies: Federal supervisor perceptions of the job of management. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 18, 41-56.
Dubno, P., Costas, J., Cannon, H., Wankel, C., & Emin, H. (1979). An empirically keyed scale for measuring managerial attitudes toward women executives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 3, 357-363.
Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233-256.
Eagly, A. H., Karau, S. J., & Makhijani, M. G. (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 125-145.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735-754.
Eyring, A., & Stead, B. A. (1998). Shattering the glass ceiling: Some successful corporate practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 17, 245-251.
Fischer, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1994). Gender, self, and others: Perceptions of the campus environment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 343-355.
Fischer, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1998). New directions for the study of gender role attitudes: A cluster analytic investigation of masculine ideologies. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 371-384.
Galambos, N. L., Petersen, A. C., Richards, M., & Gitelson, I. B. (1985). The Attitudes toward Women Scale for Adolescents (AWSA): A study of reliability and validity. Sex Roles, 13, 343-356.
Gerstmann, E. A., & Kramer, D.A. (1997). Feminist identity development: Psychometric analysis of two feminist identity scales. Sex Roles, 36, 327-348.
Hammick, M., & Acker, S. (1998). Undergraduate research supervision: A gender analysis. Studies in Higher Education, 23, 335-347.
Heilman, M. E. (1997). Sex discrimination and the affirmative action remedy: The role of sex stereotypes. Journal of Business Ethics, 16, 877-889.
Heilman, M. E., & Martell, R. E. (1986). Exposure to successful women: Antidote to sex discrimination applicant screening decisions? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 376-390.
Henley, N. M., Meng, K., O'Brien, D., McCarthy, W. J., & Sockloskie, R. J. (1998). Developing a scale to measure the diversity of feminist attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 317-348.
Jeanquart-Barone, S., & Sekaran, U. (1994). Effects of supervisor's gender on American women's trust. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 253-254.
Jorstad, J. (1996). Narcissism and leadership: Some differences in male and female leaders. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 17, 17-23.
Korabik, K., & Rosin, H.M.(1995). The impact of children onwomenmanagers' career behavior and organizational commitment. Human Resource Management, 34, 513-528.
Lamke, L. K. (1982). The impact of sex-role orientation on self-esteem in early adolescence. Child Development, 53, 1530-1535.
Lewis, A. E., & Fagenson-Eland, E. A. (1998). The influence of gender and organization level on perceptions of leadership behaviors: A self and supervisor comparison. Sex Roles, 39, 479-502.
Lewis, G. B., & Park, K. (1989). Turnover rates in federal white-collar employment: Are women more likely to quit than men? American Review of Public Administration, 19, 13-48.
Liss, M., Hoffner, C., & Crawford, M. (2000). What do feminists believe? Psychology ofWomen Quarterly, 24, 279-284.
Loo, R., & Thorpe, K. (1998). Attitudes toward women's roles in society: A replication after 20 years. Sex Roles, 39, 903-912.
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C.N. (1974), The psychology of sex differences. Stanford,CA: Stanford University Press.
McGlashan, K. E., Wright, P. M., & McCormick, B. (1995). Preferential selection and stereotypes: Effects on evaluation of female leader performance, subordinate goal commitment, and task performance. Sex Roles, 33, 669-686.
McHugh, M. C., & Frieze, I. H. (1997). The measurement of gender-role attitudes: A review and commentary. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 1-16.
Mott, V. W. (1998). Women's career development in midlife and beyond. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 80, 25-33.
Ohlott, P., Ruderman, M., & McCauley, C. (1994). Gender differences in managers' development job experiences. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 46-67.
Owen, C. L., & Todor, W. D. (1993). Attitudes toward women as managers: Still the same. Business Horizons, 36, 12-16.
Peters, L. H., Terborg, J. R., & Taynor, J. (1974). Women as Managers Scale(WAMS):Ameasure of attitudes toward women in managerial positions. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, Ms. No. 585.
Pfeffer, J., & Ross, J. (1990). Gender-based wage differences: The effects of organizational context. Work and Occupations, 17, 55-78.
Reskin, B., & Padavic, I. (1994). Women and men at work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.
Rice, R. W., Bender, L. R., & Vitters, A. G. (1980). Leader sex, follower attitudes toward women, and leadership effectiveness: A laboratory experiment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 25, 46-56.
Rigg, C., & Sparrow, J. (1994). Gender, diversity and working styles. Women in Management Review, 9, 9-16.
Rosen, B., & Jerdee, T. H. (1975). The psychological basis for sex role stereotypes—a note on Terborg and Ilgen's conclusions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 14, 151.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Schreiber, P. J. (1998). Women's career development patterns. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 80, 5-13.
Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. E. (2000). Instrumental and expressive traits, trait stereotypes, and sexist attitudes: What do they signify? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 44-62.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1972). The Attitudes toward Women Scale: An objective instrument to measure attitudes towards the rights and roles of women in contemporary society. JAS: Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 2, 66-67.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29-39.
Stephan, C. W., Stephan, W. G., Demitrakis, K. M., Yamada, A. M., & Clason, D. L. (2000). Women's attitudes toward men: An integrated threat theory approach. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 63-73.
Sutton, C. D., & Moore, K. K. (1985). Executive women: Twenty years later. Harvard Business Review, 85, 42-66.
Swim, J. K., Aiken, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214.
Talmud, I., & Izraeli, D. N. (1999). The relationship between gender and performance issues of concern to directors: Correlates or institution? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 459-474.
Terborg, J. R., Peters, L. H., Ilgen, D. R., & Smith, S. (1977). Organizational and personal correlates of attitudes toward women as managers. Academy of Management Journal, 20, 89-100.
Valentine, S. (1998). Self-esteem and men's negative stereotypes of women who work. Psychological Reports, 83, 920-922.
Valentine, S., & Godkin, L. (2000). Supervisor gender, leadership style, and perceived job design. Women in Management Review, 15, 117-129.
Valentine, S., & Elias, R. (in press). Perceived sex discrimination: The role of sex stereotyping among Hispanic and non-Hispanic women. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality.
Valentine, S., & Mosely, G. (1998). Aversion to women who work and perceived discrimination among Euro-Americans and Mexican-Americans. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, 1027-1033.
Valentine, S., & Mosely, G. (1999). Acculturation and sex-role attitudes among Mexican Americans: A longitudinal analysis. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 22, 104-113.
Valenzuela, A. (1993). Liberal gender role attitudes and academic achievement among Mexican-origin adolescents in two Houston inner-city catholic schools. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15, 310-323.
Yoder, J. D., & McDonald, T. W. (1997). The generalizability and construct validity of the Modern Sexism Scale: Some cautionary notes. Sex Roles, 36, 655-663.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Valentine, S. Development of a Brief Multidimensional Aversion to Women Who Work Scale. Sex Roles 44, 773–787 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012206632272
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012206632272