Abstract
We have investigated the mechanisms of induction of apoptosis by the antineoplastic ether lipid ET-18-OCH3 (ALP) in sensitive S49wt mouse lymphoma cells and ALP-resistant S49ar variants, both with wild-type p53, and in related L1210 cells with mutated p53. Ether lipid-resistant S49ar cells were cross-resistant to extracellular stress factors (cold shock, heat shock, H2O2, dimethylsulfoxide) and to radiation-induced apoptosis but not to physiological apoptotic signals (dexamethasone, growth factor deprivation, thapsigargin, C2-ceramide) and expressed similar levels of the apoptosis-regulating proteins Bcl-2, Bcl-X, Bax, Bad and Bak as did the parent S49wt cells. The uptake of [3H]-ALP was strongly reduced in the stress-resistant cells but this was not associated with significant differences in membrane cholesterol:phospholipid content nor in membrane microviscosity. In S49ar cells the activity of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was increased 4-fold and depletion of glutathione with the drug L-buthionine-S-R-sulfoximine (L-BSO) lowered the resistance of S49ar cells to ALP, stress factors and ionising radiation. The results indicate that ether lipids induce apoptosis by imposing a special form of physico-chemical stress, mediated by reactive oxygen species but independent of p53 status. The capacity of glutathione-dependent anti-oxidant defence appeared an important and shared determinant of the sensitivity to ether lipids, several types of extracellular stress and ionising radiation.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Unger C, Fleer EA, Kötting J, Neumuller W, Eibl H. Antitumoral activity of alkylphosphocholines and analogues in human leukemia cell lines. In: Eibl E, Hilgard P, Unger C eds. Alkylphosphocholines: New Drugs in Cancer Therapy. Basel, CH: Karger, 1992: 25-32.
Diomede L, Bizzi A, Magistrelli A, Modest EJ, Salmona M, Noseda A. Role of cholesterol in modulating antineoplastic ether lipid uptake, membrane effects and cytotoxicity. Int J Cancer 1990; 46: 341-346.
Diomede L Piovani B, Re F, et al. The induction of apoptosis is a common feature of the cytotoxic action of ether-linked glycerophospholipids in human leukemic cells. Int J Cancer 1994; 57: 645-649.
Mollinedo F, Fernandez-Luna JL, Gajate C, et al. Selective induction of apoptosis in cancer cells by the ether lipid ET-18-OCH3 (Edelfosine): Molecular structure requirements, cellular uptake, and protection by Bcl-2 and Bcl-Xl. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 1320-1328.
Heesbeen EC, Verdonck LF, Haagmans M, Van Heugten HG, Staal GE, Rijksen G. Adsorption and uptake of the alkyllysophospholipid ET-18-OCH3 by HL-60 cells during induction of differentiation by dimethylsulfoxide. Leukemia Res 1993; 17: 143-148.
Zoeller RA, Layne MD, Modest EJ. Animal cell mutants unable to take up biologically active glycerophospholipids. J. Lipid Res 1995; 36: 1866-1875.
Kelley EE, Modest EJ, Burns CP. Unidirectional membrane uptake of the ether lipid antineoplastic agent edelfosine by L1210 cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1993; 45: 2435-2439.
Van Blitterswijk WJ, Van Hoeven RP, Van der Meer BW. Lipid structural order parameters (reciprocal of fluidity) in biomembranes derived from steady-state fluorescence polarization measurements. Biochim. Biophys. 1981; 644: 323-332.
Collard JG, De Wildt A, Oomen-Meulemans EP, Smeekens J, Emmelot P. Increase in fluidity of membrane lipids in lymphocytes, fibroblasts and liver cells stimulated for growth. FEBS Letters 1977; 77: 173-178.
Haimovitz-Friedman A, Kan CC, Ehleiter D, et al. Ionising radiation acts on cellular membranes to generate ceramide and initiate apoptosis. J Exp Med 1994; 180: 525-535.
Verheij M, Bose R, Lin XH, et al. Requirement for ceramideinitiated SAPK/JNK signalling in stress-induced apoptosis. Nature 1996; 380: 75-79.
Chmura SJ, Nodzenski E, Beckett MA, Kufe DW, Quintans J, Weichselbaum RR. Loss of ceramide production confers resistance to radiation-induced apoptosis. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 1270-1275.
Hannun YA. Functions of ceramide in coordinating cellular responses to stress. Science 1996; 274: 1855-1859.
Deas O, Dumont C, Mollereau B, et al. Thiol-mediated inhibition of FAS and CD2 apoptotic signaling in activated human peripheral T cells. Int Immunol 1997; 9: 117-125.
Liu B, Hannun YA. Inhibition of the neutral magnesium-dependent sphingomyelinase by glutathione. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 16281-16287.
Wagner BA, Buettner GR, Burns CP. Membrane peroxidative damage enhancement by the ether lipid class of antineoplastic agents. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 6045-6051.
Salomons GS, Brady H, Verwijs-Janssen M, et al. The Bax: Bcl-2 ratio modulates the response to dexamethasone in leukemic cells and is highly variable in childhood acute leukemia. Int J Cancer 1997, 71: 959-965.
Smets LA, Salomons G, Van Rooij H, Van den Berg J. Involvement of the glucocorticoid receptor in stress-induced apoptosis of leukemic cells. Leukemia 1998; 12: 406-413.
Borenstain V, Barenholz Y. Characterization of liposome and other lipid assemblies by multiprobe fluorescence polarization. Chemistry and Physics of Lipids 1993; 64: 117-127.
Oldenburg J, Begg AC, van Vugt M, et al. Characterization of resistance mechanisms to cis-Diamminedichloroplatinum (II) in three sublines of the CC531 colon adenocarcinoma cell line in Vitro. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 487-493.
Gregory CD, Milner AE. Regulation of cell survival in Burkitt lymphoma: Implications from studies of apoptosis following cold-shock treatment. Int J Cancer 1994; 57: 419-426.
Åslund F, Beckwith J. Bridge over troubled waters: sensing stress by disulfide bond formation. Cell 1999; 96: 751-753.
Tew KD. Glutathione-associated enzymes in anti-cancer drug resistance. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 4313-4320.
Lowe S, Schmitt EM, Smith SW, Osborne BA, Jacks T. p53 is required for radiation-induced apoptosis in mouse thymocytes. 1993; 362: 847-849.
Van Helvoort A, Smit AJ, Sprong H, et al. MDR1 Pglycoprotein is a lipid translocase of broad specificity, while MDR3 P-glycoprotein specifically translocates phosphatidylcholine. Cell 1996; 87: 507-517.
Schreck R, Albermann K, Baeuerle PA. Nuclear factor kappa B: an oxidative stress-responsive transcription factor of eukaryotic cells (a review). Free Radicals Research Communications 1992; 17: 221-237.
Cornelissen J, Van Kuilenburg BP, Voûte PA, Van Gennip AH. Mibg causes oxidative stress and up-regulation of anti-oxidant enzymes in the human neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-BE(2c). Int J Cancer 1997; 72: 1-5.
Mirkovic N, Voehringer DW, Story MD, McConkey DJ, McDonnel TJ, Meyn RE. Resistance to radiation-induced apoptosis in Bcl-2-expressing cells is reversed by depleting cellular thiols. Oncogene 1997; 15: 1461-1470.
Polyak K, Xia Y, Zweiner JL, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. A model for p53-induced apoptosis. Nature 1997; 389: 300-305.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Smets, L.A., Van Rooij, H. & Salomons, G.S. Signalling steps in apoptosis by ether lipids. Apoptosis 4, 419–427 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009644208512
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009644208512