Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ndmmz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-21T21:03:42.093Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Brian Roberts and the origins of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2016

Steve Heavens
Steve Heavens*
Affiliation:
West View, Linney, Ludlow SY8 1EE (steve@morisca.plus.com)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

During his lifetime and beyond, Brian Roberts was often thought to be the éminence grise of the UK's Antarctic policy and also of the founding of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. Documentary evidence of his influence has, however, been conspicuously absent, due in part to the closure of relevant files in the UK's National Archives. Using Roberts’ personal files in the archives of the Scott Polar Research Institute in Cambridge, files in the UK National Archives that remained closed for 50 years but have recently been released, and the recollections of surviving contemporaries of Roberts, it has been possible to establish the extent of his involvement in the evolution of the treaty and to add new elements that may contribute towards a reconstruction of its complex history. From 1956 Roberts developed a productive relationship with the UK Foreign Office's Head of American Department Henry Hankey that enabled them to influence the UK policy on Antarctica and to make a significant contribution towards the political settlement represented by the treaty. For Roberts and his colleagues in the Foreign Office the main purpose of the treaty was not primarily the promotion of international scientific collaboration but was essentially a means of addressing a political situation that had become otherwise intractable.

Type
Research Article
Information
Polar Record , Volume 52 , Issue 6 , November 2016 , pp. 717 - 729
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

‘SPRI’ refers to the archives of the Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge; ‘TNA’ refers to the UK National Archives, Kew, London; ‘FRUS’ refers to the Foreign Relations of the United States archives. ‘USNA’ refers to the United States Naval Academy, Washington.Google Scholar
Anderson, W.E. 1957. Expedition south. London: Travel Book Club.Google Scholar
Anstee, M.J. 1949. Minute AS4677 to E. Beckett, 21 September 1949. TNA FO 371/74757.Google Scholar
Anstee, M.J. 2003. Never learn to type: a woman at the United Nations. Chichester: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Audland, C.J. 1957a. Note A15214/65 to D.H.T. Hildyard, 15 August 1957. TNA FO 371/126127.Google Scholar
Audland, C.J. 1957b. Letter to D.H.T. Hildyard, 8 November 1957 containing Agreed report on quadripartite talks, Annex A: An international regime for the Antarctic. TNA FCO 7/3248.Google Scholar
Bass, H.G.R. 1958. Note, 6 March 1958. TNA FO 371/131906.Google Scholar
Beck, P.J. 1985. Preparatory meetings for the Antarctic Treaty. Polar Record 22 (41): 653–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, J.S. 1948. Reply to N.J. McNulty, 6 October 1948. TNA CO 537/3527Google Scholar
Bennett, J.S. 1949. Letter 5106 to A.S. Fordham, 13 October 1949. TNA FO 371/74757.Google Scholar
Berguño, J. 2012. The search for an organizational framework for Antarctic research (1948–1985). In: Lüdecke, C., Tipton-Everett, L., and Lay, L. (editors). National and trans-national agendas in Antarctic research from the 1950s and beyond. Columbus OH: SCAR (Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop of the SCAR Action Group on the history of Antarctic research. 26–27 October 2007. BPRC technical Report No. 2011-01, Byrd Polar Research Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.) URL: https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/53605/BPRC_Tech_Rept_2011-01.pdf?sequence=1. (accessed 10 March 2016).Google Scholar
Bertram, G.C.L. 1956. Antarctic prospect. International affairs 33 (2): 143–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowers, C.G. 1948. FRUS 1(2), 8 October 1948: 1009–1010.Google Scholar
Bulkeley, R. 2012. Polar internationalism, diplomacy and the IGY. In: In: Lüdecke, C., Tipton-Everett, L., and Lay, L. (editors). National and trans-national agendas in Antarctic research from the 1950s and beyond. Columbus OH: SCAR (Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop of the SCAR Action Group on the history of Antarctic research. 26–27 October 2007. BPRC technical Report No. 2011-01, Byrd Polar Research Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.) URL: https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/53605/BPRC_Tech_Rept_2011-01.pdf?sequence=1. (accessed 20 January 2016).Google Scholar
Caccia, H. 1959. Note A15214/22 to Foreign Office, 6 February 1959. TNA FO 371/138958.Google Scholar
Carless, H.M. 2002. Interview by Malcolm McBain, 23 February 2002. Cambridge: Churchill College British Diplomatic Oral History Programme (BDOHP). URL: https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/media/uploads/files/Carless.pdf. (accessed 17 January 2016).Google Scholar
House, Chatham. 1956. Minutes of private discussion on 13 December 1956. TNA FO 371/126121.Google Scholar
Clift, R.D. 1956. Minute, 9 October 1956. TNA FO 371/119820.Google Scholar
Cockram, B. 1948. Letter to C.A.E. Shuckburgh, 12 October 1948. TNA CO 537/3527.Google Scholar
Colonial Office. 1950. Scale of operations of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey, 17 January 1950. TNA FO 371/81131.Google Scholar
Commonwealth Relations Office. 1948. Cabinet paper C.P.M.(48)10. Annex A, 24 September 1948. TNA CO 537/3527.Google Scholar
Corner, F. H. 1956. Letter to R.L.D. Jasper, 11 May 1956. TNA FO 371/119819.Google Scholar
Daniels, P.C. 1957. Memorandum to Secretary of State, 9 December 1957. FRUS 1955–57 XI: 716–718.Google Scholar
Day, D. 2012. Antarctica: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
De la Mare, A.J. 1957. Despatch A15214/83 to H.A. Hankey, 20 September 1957. TNA FO 371/126127.Google Scholar
Dominions Office. 1957a. Working paper for UK, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa meeting 12–13 September 1957. TNA DO 35/6986Google Scholar
Dominions Office. 1957b. Minutes A15214/79G of meetings at the Commonwealth Relations Office,12–13 September 1957. TNA FO 371/126127.Google Scholar
Dudeney, J.R. and Walton, D.W.H.. 2012. From Scotia to ‘Operation Tabarin’: developing British policy for Antarctica. Polar Record 48 (04): 342–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dulles, J.F. 1957. Department of State to UK Embassy, 23 August 1957. FRUS 1955–1957 XI:710–711.Google Scholar
Empson, C. 1955. Application to the International Court: Chilean note verbale A1527/78, 13 May 1955. TNA FO 371/113974.Google Scholar
Empson, C. 1956. Letter A1523/53 to H.A. Hankey, 24 September 1956. TNA FO 371/119820.Google Scholar
Empson, C. 1957. Letter to H. Beeley, 4 April 1957. TNA FO 371/126125.Google Scholar
Fisher, J. 1977. Burgess and Maclean: a new look at the Foreign Office spies. London: Robert Hale.Google Scholar
Fitzmaurice, G.G. 1955. Response to note on Antarctica by R.L. Speaight, 2 November 1955. TNA FO 371/113976.Google Scholar
Fitzmaurice, G.G. 1956. Note, 21 March 1956. TNA FO 371/119835.Google Scholar
Foreign Office. 1948a. Draft telegram No. 1757 to Washington, 3 November 1948. TNA CO 537/3527Google Scholar
Foreign Office. 1948b. Telegram No. 909 to Buenos Aires, 10 November 1948. TNA CO 537/3527Google Scholar
Foreign Office 1953. Report of the Cadogan Committee, Appendices G–I, October 1953. TNA FCO 158/177.Google Scholar
Foreign Office. 1957. Minutes A15214/112G of proposed draft constitution, 27 November 1957. TNA FO 371/126129Google Scholar
Foreign Relations. 1947. Chilean embassy to Department of State, 13 October 1947. FRUS 1947 1: 1052.Google Scholar
Foreign Relations. 1948. FRUS 1948 1(2).Google Scholar
Foreign Relations. 1955–1957. Letter from Deputy Under-Secretary of State, 11 March 1957. FRUS XI: 656–658.Google Scholar
Freeland, J.R. 1957. Note to G.G. Fitzmaurice, 29 November 1957. TNA FO 371/126129.Google Scholar
Fuchs, V. E. 1982. Of ice and men. Oswestry: Anthony Nelson.Google Scholar
Galsworthy, A.N. 1948a. Note to J.S. Bennett, 3 November 1948. TNA CO 537/3527Google Scholar
Galsworthy, A.N. 1948b. Note to J.S. Bennett, 15 November 1948. TNA CO 537/3527Google Scholar
Haddelsey, S. 2014. Operation Tabarin. Stroud: The History Press.Google Scholar
Hall, H.R. 2002. Casey and the negotiation of the Antarctic treaty. In: Jabour-Green, J. and Haward, M. (editors). The Antarctic: past, present and future. Hobart: CRC: 30. (Antarctic CRC Research report 28). URL: http://eprints.utas.edu.au/2661/11/10_Hall.pdf. (ccessed: 10 March 2016).Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1956a. Minute A15238/1 to S. Hood, 21 November 1956. TNA FO 371/119847.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1956b. Memorandum AU1057/3, 15 November 1956. TNA FO 371/120342Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1956c. Minute, 20 November 1956. TNA FO 371/119820.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957a. Memorandum A15214/17G, 31 January 1957. TNA FO 371/126125.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957b. Comment on Minute A1526/2 by R. D. Clift, 17 January 1957. TNA FO 371/126118.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957c. Note to Air Commodore Lee, 26 February 1957. TNA FO 371/126125.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957d. Note to Sir F. Hoyar Millar, 2 August 1957. TNA FO 371/126127.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957e. Minute to S. Hood, 26 June 1957. TNA FO 371/126126Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957f. Minute A15214/93, 9 September 1957. TNA FO 371/126128.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957g. Despatch A15214/74G to D Muirhead, 5 September 1957. TNA FO 371/126127.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957h. Minute A1526/5, 5 September 1957. TNA FO 371/126118.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1957i. Note A15214/89 to I. Pink, 26 September 1957. TNA FO 371/126128.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1958a. Minute A15214/5, 24 January 1958. TNA FO 371/131905.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1958b. Notes, 12 February 1958 onwards. TNA FO 371/131906.Google Scholar
Hankey, H.A.A. 1971. Letter to B. B. Roberts, 10 May 1971. Ditchley Park conference on the Arctic Ocean 14–17 May 1971. SPRI MS 1279/CC.Google Scholar
Hansard, . 1955. House of Commons debate, 7 November 1955. London: Hansard 545 c1451–1452, c1481–1611.Google Scholar
Hood, S. 1957a. Note A1524/12G: Antarctica, 22 January 1957. FO 371/126125.Google Scholar
Hood, S. 1957b. Letter A15214/22 to C. Empson, 12 April 1957. FO 371/126125.Google Scholar
Hopson, D.C. 1956. Letter to H.A Hankey, 28 December 1956. TNA FO 371/126118.Google Scholar
Howkins, A.J. 2008a. Frozen empires: a history of the Antarctic sovereignty dispute between Britain, Argentina and Chile, 1939–1959. Unpublished PhD =dissertation. Austin: University of Texas at Austin. URL: https://www.lib.utexas.edu/etd/d/2008/howkinsa39777/howkinsa39777.pdf (accessed 20 January 2016).Google Scholar
Howkins, A.J. 2008b. Defending polar empire: opposition to India's proposal to raise the ‘Antarctic Question’ at the United Nations. Polar Record 44 (01): 35–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Court 1956. Antarctica cases: International Court of Justice: pleadings, oral arguments, documents. Orders of March 16th 1956. Removal from the list. The Hague: Oxford Reports on International Law. Case numbers: ICJ Rep 12 ICGJ 178 (Argentina), ICJ Rep 15 ICGJ 177 (Chile). URL: http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/26/9065.pdf (accessed 12 March 2016).Google Scholar
Jacobsson, M. 2009. Building the international legal framework for Antarctica. In Berkman, P.A. (editor), Science diplomacy: Antarctica, science and the governance of international spaces. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institute. Antarctic Treaty summit 2009: reference 20. URL: www.atsummit50.org/media/book-5.pdf (accessed 17 January 2016).Google Scholar
Jasper, R.L.D. 1957. Note A15231/1 to H. A. Hankey, 26 April 1957. TNA FO 371/126138.Google Scholar
Jenks, C.W. 1956. An international regime for Antarctica? International Affairs 32 (4): 414–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kikkert, P. 2016. Grasping for the ends of the Earth: framing and contesting polar sovereignty, 1900–1955. Unpublished PhD dissertation. London Ontario: University of Western Ontario. URL: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5055&context=etd. Last accessed 10 March 2016.Google Scholar
King, H.G R. and Savours, A.. 1995. Polar pundit: reminiscences about Brian Birley Roberts. Cambridge: Scott Polar Research Institute:Google Scholar
Liotard, A. 1948. Letter to B.B. Roberts, 30 September 1948. TNA CO 537/3527CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longmire, R. A. and Walker, K.C.. 1995. Herald of a noisy world – interpreting the news of all nations. The Research and Analysis Department of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office: a history. London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office (Foreign Policy Document Series (Special Issue 263). URL: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/361922/Herald_of_a_Noisy_World.pdf (accessed 6 March 2016).Google Scholar
Maclean, D.D. 1951a. Note, 21 May 1951. Antarctic place names committee 1951. SPRI MS 1274/3Google Scholar
Maclean, D.D. 1951b. Response to minute by M.J. Anstee, 24 May 1951. SPRI MS 1274/3.Google Scholar
Macmillan, H. 1955. Response to minute by R.L Speaight, 29 August 1955. TNA FO 371/113976.Google Scholar
Man, M.C.G. 1955a. Note to R L Speaight: Draft Cabinet paper, 26 January 1955. TNA FO 371/113971.Google Scholar
Man, M.C.G. 1955b. Response to 3 papers by B. B. Roberts, 14 March 1955. TNA FO 371/114000.Google Scholar
Man, M.C.G. 1955c. Response to B.B. Roberts: UK Policy in the Antarctic, 10 November 1955. TNA FO 371/113976.Google Scholar
Man, M.C.G. 1956a. Minute A1523/22, 22 February 1956. TNA FO 371/119818.Google Scholar
Man, M.C.G. 1956b. Note to A.W. Snelling, 31 August 1956. TNA FO 371/119838.Google Scholar
Moore, J.K. 1999. Tethered to an iceberg: United States policy toward the Antarctica, 1939–1949. Polar Record 35 (193): 125–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muirhead, D.F. 1956a. Despatch A1523/33to I.F.S. Vincent, 20 April 1956. TNA FO 371/119819.Google Scholar
Muirhead, D.F. 1956b. Despatch A1523/30 to M.C.G. Man, 30 March 1956. TNA FO 371/119818.Google Scholar
Parsons, R.E.C.F. 2005. Interview by Malcolm McBain, 20 June 2005. Cambridge: Churchill College British Diplomatic Oral History Programme (BDOHP), URL: https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/media/uploads/files/Parsons_Richard.pdf (accessed 17 January 2016).Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1932–1978. List of publications by B. B. Roberts. SPRI MS 1308/43/3.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1940–43. Diary 1940–1943. Annex II: Notes on the SPRI during the war. SPRI MS 188.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1943. Letters concerning recruitment to the Foreign Office. Personal papers. SPRI MS 1308/43.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1945a Territorial claims in the Antarctic, 1 May 1945. TNA FO 371/119821.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1945b Territorial claims in the Antarctic, 1 May 1945. Canberra: Australian National Archives A4311 #365/8. URL: http://www.naa.gov.au/ (accessed 17 January 2016).Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1948a. Note to E. Shuckburgh. French attitude to the Antarctic, 9 September 1948. TNA CO 537/3527.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1948b. Letter to P.J. Sterling, 9 October 1948. TNA CO 537/3527.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1950a. Response to minute by R. Cecil, 26 January 1950. TNA FO 371/81131.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1950b. Note A15224/1 to R. Cecil, 27 October 1950. Antarctic place names committee 1950. SPRI MS 1274/2.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1955a. Minute A1527/9, 13 January 1955. TNA FO 371/113971.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1955b. Memorandum A1527/4G: British policy in the Antarctic, 13 January 1955. TNA FO 371/113971.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1955c. Memorandum A1522/4: Russian interest in the Antarctic, March 1955. TNA FO 371/113959.Google Scholar
Roberts, BB. 1955d. Memorandum: the United States contribution to the IGY, 1 April 1955. TNA FO 371/113959.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1955e. Note A15228/1 to M.C.G. Man and R.L. Speaight: The organization of UK polar matters, 12 March 1955. TNA FO 371/114000.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1955f. Memorandum A1527/132, 28 October 1955. TNA FO 371/113976.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1956. Journal: Visit to the Arctic Institute, Leningrad. SPRI MS 1308/8.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1957a. Note to H.A. Hankey, 22 November 1957. TNA FO 371/126129.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1957b. Letter to G.C.L. Bertram, 24 June 1957. Private collection of Mark Bertram.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1959. Journal: Antarctic conference, Washington. SPRI MS 1308/9.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1961. Journal: First Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Canberra. SPRI MS 1308/11.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1963. Autobiographical note on early Foreign Office days. SPRI 1308/43/24.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1965. Letter to K. McQuillen, 31 July 1965. Cambridge: Churchill College Archives CCAC/110/31.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1969. Letter from H.A. Hankey, 18 June 1969. Roberts: Miscellaneous papers 1960–1969. SPRI MS 1308/43/15.Google Scholar
Roberts, B.B. 1976. Annex I: Origin and history of the Polar Regions Section. Journal: British Antarctic Survey. SPRI MS 1308/47.Google Scholar
Roberts, P. 2012. ‘What has all this to do with science?’ The rhetoric of scientific devotion in British government plans for the IGY. In: Lüdecke, C., Tipton-Everett, L., and Lay, L. (editors). National and trans-national agendas in Antarctic research from the 1950s and beyond. Columbus OH: SCAR (Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop of the SCAR Action Group on the history of Antarctic research. 26–27 October 2007. BPRC technical Report No. 2011-01, Byrd Polar Research Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.) URL: https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/53605/BPRC_Tech_Rept_2011-01.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed 12 March 2016).Google Scholar
Rutter, P. 1956. Despatch No. 3165 to J. F. Dulles, 20 June 1956. USNA 702.022/6–2056.Google Scholar
Salisbury, Marquess of. 1955. Note to Prime Minister, 27 April 1955. TNA FO 371/113972Google Scholar
Scrivener, R.S. 1957. Minute, 4 July 1957. TNA FO 371/126126.Google Scholar
Speaight, R.L. 1955a. Minute A1527/126, 26 August 1955. TNA FO 371/113976.Google Scholar
Speaight, R.L. 1955b. Memorandum: Antarctica, 1 November 1955. TNA FO 371/113976.Google Scholar
Speaight, R.L. 1956a. Paper: 1948 proposals for United Nations trusteeship in the Antarctic, 29 February 1956. TNA FO 371/119835.Google Scholar
Speaight, R.L. 1956b. Note, 22 February 1956. TNA FO 371/119818.Google Scholar
Speak, P. 2008. Deb: Geographer, scientist, Antarctic explorer. Guildford: Polar Publishing Limited: 98.Google Scholar
State Department. 1948. Aide-memoire 4588/16/51, 9 August 1948. TNA CO 537/3527.Google Scholar
Stirling, P.J. 1949. Minute on moderation of United States schemes, 22 April 1949. TNA FO 371/74757.Google Scholar
St John, R.B. 1994. The Bolivia-Chile-Peru dispute in the Atacama desert. Boundary and territory briefing 1 (6). URL: https://www.google.co.uk/?gws_rd=ssl#q=boundary+and+territory+briefing (ccessed 6 March 2016).Google Scholar
Templeton, M. 2000. A wise adventure: New Zealand and Antarctica 1920–1960. Wellington: Victoria University Press.Google Scholar
Vincent, I.F.S. 1956a. Minutes A15218/11, A15218/20 on Indian move to bring Antarctic before the United Nations, 29 February and 23 March 1956. TNA FO 371/119835Google Scholar
Vincent, I.F.S. 1956b. Minute A1523/36: Antarctica, 29 May 1956. TNA FO 371/119819.Google Scholar
Vincent, I.F.S. 1956c. Note to R.D. Clift, 20 December 1956. TNA FO 371/119847.Google Scholar
Vincent, I.F.S. 1957. Response A1527/17 to Minute, 22 March 1957. TNA FO 371/126119.Google Scholar
Whitehead, J.S. 1956a. Minute A1523/40: Antarctic policy, 20 June 1956. TNA FO 1198i9.Google Scholar
Whitehead, J.S. and others 1956b. Minutes 17 February to 15 March 1956. TNA FO 371/119835.Google Scholar
Willis, M.A. 1957. Letter to H.A. Hankey with memorandum by P. Rogers, 29 April 1957. TNA FO 371/126126.Google Scholar