Multiplexed shotgun sequencing reveals congruent three-genome phylogenetic signals for four botanical sections of the flax genus Linum
Graphical abstract
Introduction
The last two decades have seen increased efforts in studies of phylogenetic relationships of plant species using DNA sequences from different genomic compartments (Chaw et al., 2000, Guo and Ge, 2005, Rieseberg and Soltis, 1991, Tsutsui et al., 2009, Wang et al., 2000, Yang et al., 2012). These studies frequently showed incongruent phylogenies and rarely reported evidence for congruent phylogenetic signals extracted from organelle and nuclear genomes (Soltis and Kuzoff, 1995, Pelser et al., 2010, Wang et al., 2011, Yu et al., 2013). These research findings are largely expected (Korpelainen, 2004, Wolfe et al., 1987), as inheritance pathways of these three genomes in most plant species differ; the chloroplast, mitochondrial, and nuclear genomes are paternally, maternally, and biparentally inherited, respectively (Hansen et al., 2007, Korpelainen, 2004). Also, genes from different genomes may carry distinct phylogenies in differential responses to processes such as lineage sorting, gene duplication/ deletion, lateral gene transfer, and hybrid speciation (Doyle, 1997, Maddison, 1997, Wendel and Doyle, 1998). However, previous studies are mainly relied on a few genes from each genome and it is possible that the limited resolution of genome sampling was among important factors clouding the phylogenetic analyses (Rokas et al., 2003, Tsutsui et al., 2009)
Next generation sequencing (NGS) has recently emerged as a promising genomic approach for phylogenetic analysis of non-model organisms with a genome-wide detection of phylogenetic signals (Soltis et al., 2013). Now it is technically possible to obtain enormous amounts of sequence data from any genomes of any species in a short time at low cost (Davey et al. 2011). Phylogenetic reconstruction with increased resolution can be performed using genome-wide simple nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data (Ekblom and Galindo, 2011, Mamanova et al., 2010, Straub et al., 2012). However, the applications of NGS in phylogenetic analysis have been relatively slow, as they mainly deal with non-model organisms, require sequencing of more samples per species, have no consensus NGS protocols specific for particular research questions, and are in the transitional use of whole-genome sequencing versus genome-reduction approach (McCormack et al., 2013). Currently, four major NGS approaches are explored with great potential for phylogenetic analysis: amplicon sequencing, restriction-digest, target enrichment, and transcriptome analysis (Escudero et al., 2014, McCormack et al., 2013, Ruhsam et al., 2015, Sveinsson et al., 2013). Among those approaches, restriction-digest based methods such as restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RADseq; Emerson et al., 2010, Hohenlohe et al., 2011) or genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS; Elshire et al., 2011) are highly promoted, while the whole-genome sequencing is least applied (Andolfatto et al., 2011, Philippe et al., 2009, Rokas et al., 2003, Ruhsam et al., 2015). Thus, little is known about the effectiveness and feasibility of these NGS approaches in a phylogenetic analysis (Escudero et al., 2014, Sveinsson et al., 2013, Zimmer and Wen, 2015).
The flax genus Linum is the largest genus in the family Linaceae of flowering plant with over 180 species spread over six continents (Winkler, 1931) and a relatively old genus thought to be originated about 46 million years ago (MYA) (McDill and Simpson, 2011, McDill et al., 2009). It is divided into six botanic sections: Linum, Dasylinum, Syllinum, Linastrum, Cathartolinum and Cliococca (Winkler, 1931). There are two major lineages: a large, predominately blue-flowered clade containing the sections Dasylinum and Linum and a yellow-flowered clade consisting of the sections Cathartolinum, Linopsis and Syllinum (McDill and Simpson, 2011, McDill et al., 2009). Cultivated flax (L. usitatissimum L.) is an important source of high-quality fibers (Mohanty et al., 2000) and seed oil (Green, 1986). The cultivated flax was further divided based on important traits into several varietal groups, including L. usitatissimum L. landrace, L. usitatissimum L. fiber and L. usitatissimum L. oil (Diederichsen and Fu, 2006, Dillman et al., 1953). In recent years, the medicinal applications of Linum, such as treatments for cardiovascular diseases and cancer, have renewed interest in systematic relations among Linum species (McDill et al., 2009, Rickard-Bon and Thompson, 2003). The phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of diverse species in the Linum genus have been investigated using cytogenetic, genetic, and genomic approaches (Allaby et al., 2005, Chennaveeraiah and Joshi, 1983, Fu and Allaby, 2010, Fu et al., 2002, Gill and Yermanos, 1967, Melnikova et al., 2014, Sveinsson et al., 2013, Uysal et al., 2010). Overall, the revealed evolutionary relationships of assayed Linum species are largely consistent across these studies, with little incongruent phylogenetic relationships reported (Allaby et al., 2005, Fu and Peterson, 2012, McDill et al., 2009, Sveinsson et al., 2013, Uysal et al., 2010). Thus, Linum may be a good genus for assessing the congruency of phylogenetic signals among different genomes.
The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate the utility of multiplexed shotgun sequencing approach to retrieve chloroplast, mitochondrial, and nuclear SNP data for phylogenetic inference and (2) compare three-genome phylogenetic relationships of 18 Linum samples representing 16 species within four botanical sections of the Linum genus. It is our hope that this study will allow us to assess the congruency of the three-genome phylogenetic signals among those four taxonomic sections and to assess the effectiveness of the multiplexed shotgun sequencing approach in the acquisition of multiple-genome phylogenetic signals at the lower taxon level of plant species.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
Our exploration for multiplexed shotgun sequencing approach was empirically based and focused on flax species. The effort included several components: (1) flax species selection, (2) multiplexed shotgun sequencing trial, (3) bioinformatics pipeline development and application, and (4) phylogenetic analysis.
Multiplexed shotgun sequencing
In this study, we have explored a multiplexed shotgun sequencing protocol for acquiring phylogenetic signals from organelle and nuclear genomes of non-model organisms. As outlined in Fig. 1, the protocol consists of four major parts: library preparation, sequencing on MiSeq, SNP calling, and phylogenetic analysis. Each part has many steps as detailed in the materials and methods. Large effort was made with the development of the 3GenomeSNP pipeline to separate genome-specific reads, assemble
Discussion
Here we explored the use of multiplexed shotgun sequencing to retrieve phylogenetic signals from organelle and nuclear genomes of the Linum genus and revealed the first evidence for congruent three-genome phylogenetic relationships present among four botanical sections of the genus. This finding is significant for phylogenetic inference, as such evidence has been rarely reported at the low taxon level of plant species. More importantly, our application has demonstrated the effectiveness and
Concluding remarks
We explored a multiplexed shotgun sequencing protocol to retrieve phylogenetic signals from plant organelle and nuclear genomes. Application to the flax genus Linum revealed the first evidence for congruent three-genome phylogenetic relationships present among four botanical sections of the genus. This finding is significant for phylogenetic inference, as such evidence has been rarely reported from organelle and nuclear genomes at the lower taxonomic level of plant species. More research with
Authors’ contributions
YBF conceived the research, designed and developed the pipeline, generated and analyzed the NGS data, wrote the manuscript; YD developed and tested the pipeline, analyzed the NGS data, wrote the manuscript; M-HY analyzed the NGS data and wrote the manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Mr. Greg Peterson and Ms. Carolee Horbach (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) for their technical assistances in flax shotgun sequencing development; Dr. Marcus Hecker and Mr. Jonathon Doering at Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, for the use of their Illumina MiSeq facility for this project; and Dr. Frank You for the access to the published flax sequence scaffolds. This research was financially supported by an Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada A-Base research
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