Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: A systematic review
Introduction
The disposal of electronic and electric waste (e-waste) has caused a serious environmental problem, especially in developing countries. China, as the world’s leading manufacturing country, has become the largest dumping ground for e-waste (Chi et al., 2011, Song et al., 2012a, Song et al., 2012c, Song et al., 2013). E-waste is a crisis not only of quantity but also of toxic components.
E-waste recycling in China, especially informal e-waste recycling, has clearly become a major source of toxic heavy metals (Luo et al., 2011, Tang et al., 2010b, Wong et al., 2007). Heavy metals are widely used in the manufacturing of a variety of electronic products, such as lead and cadmium in circuit boards, cadmium in computer batteries, and copper in electrical wiring (Achillas et al., 2013, Song et al., 2012b, Stevels et al., 2013, Zeng and Li, 2013, Zeng et al., 2014). Driven by profits, the recycling of e-waste using primitive processes is being carried out extremely actively in a few locations in China. It is becoming an important new source of environmental pollution in these regions (Chi et al., 2011, Fujimori and Takigami, 2014, Wang et al., 2010, Song and Li, 2014). The unregulated processing of E-waste usually recovers gold and other valuable metals by applying some simple techniques such as burning, melting, and using acid chemical bath. These activities can cause severe pollution of highly toxic heavy metals (such as Cu, Cd, Pb and Hg) in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and even to the atmosphere (Deng et al., 2007, Gullett et al., 2007, Wei and Liu, 2012).
E-waste processing sites are usually located in fields adjacent to land used for agricultural purposes, especially for the informal e-waste recycling in China. Heavy metals could penetrate the soils where vegetables and crops are grown by contaminating irrigation water and through direct deposition by air. Plants can take up these metals from soil by their roots, transport them upwards to their shoots, and finally accumulate them inside their tissues (Li et al., 2011b, Zhao et al., 2010), although there are large variations among different plant species in terms of metal accumulation ability (Gullett et al., 2007, Li and Yu, 2011). In addition, direct foliar uptake of heavy metals from the atmosphere can also occur during plant growth (Zhao et al., 2010). It is well known that heavy metals persist in the environment and lead to poisoning at low concentrations through bioaccumulation in plants and animals or bio-concentration in the food chain (Fu et al., 2008, Luo et al., 2011, Zhang and Hang, 2009). Oral ingestion of contaminated food has been proved to be an important pathway for the transfer of heavy metals from the environment to human bodies. In humans, lead interferes with behavior and learning abilities; copper results in liver damage; and chronic exposure to cadmium increases the risk of lung cancer and kidney damage (Balakrishnan Ramesh et al., 2007, Bhutta et al., 2011, Chan and Wong, 2013, Esteban-Vasallo et al., 2012, Grant et al., 2013, Yan et al., 2013). Children are particularly susceptible to heavy metal exposure due to high gastrointestinal uptake and the permeable blood–brain barrier (Guo et al., 2010, Huo et al., 2007, Li et al., 2011c, Ogunseitan, 2013).
Although many studies have investigated and discussed the environmental pollution of heavy metals from e-waste recycling in China, to the best of our knowledge, no systematic reviews have been performed. Furthermore, significant findings related to heavy metal pollution of e-waste in China have been recently published. Considering the above-mentioned situation, this study reviews the current state of knowledge on heavy metal pollution from e-waste in China, with almost all the representative available data now. The main objectives of this study were to provide comprehensive information on the current environmental effects of heavy metals in China. This study can provide a large amount of valid data for the governments and companies to improve the e-waste recycling system to be more efficiently and environmentally friendly.
Section snippets
Review methods
We conducted a systematic search of the published literature, which focused on the environmental effects of heavy metals from e-waste recycling sites in China, as determined in panel studies. To focus our study, we did not consider other pollutants (PBDEs, PCBs, and PCDD/Fs) or studies in other countries (such as India, and African nations). We excluded studies reporting results in reviews, letters to the editor, and abstracts, and those that did not report an outcome related to heavy metal
Air
High levels of heavy metals in the air will impose serious environmental and biological problems (Eckelman and Graedel, 2007, Ejiogu, 2013, Ettler et al., 2008). Increased risks of mortality and morbidity have been associated with elevated levels of total suspended particles (TSP) in ambient air, especially for fine particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 mm (PM2.5) (Deng et al., 2006, Park et al., 2002).
Bi et al., 2010 investigated the concentrations of 11 kinds of heavy metals (Pb,
Discussion
China has historically been one of the largest recipients of e-waste. In the last ten years, the Chinese government has also implemented some measures and policies to reduce informal recycling (Li and Yu, 2011, Zeng et al., 2013), e.g. the e-waste import to Guiyu and Taizhou has been reduced, and at the same time, about 92 formal e-waste recycling enterprises, which were included in the subsidy list of “Processing Fund for Electrical and Electronic Equipment”, have been established in China.
Conclusions
This review of data on the environmental effects of heavy metals from e-waste recycling processes in China suggests that the measured levels of heavy metals in environmental compartments (e.g. air, soil, sediment, dust, and plants) derived from the primitive e-waste processing operations. The intensive uncontrolled processing of e-waste in China has resulted in the release of large amounts of heavy metals in the local environment, and caused high concentrations of metals to be present in the
Acknowledgements
The work was financially supported by National Key Technologies R&D Program (2014BAC03B04), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2013M540966), and a special fund of the State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control (11Z02ESPCT).
References (67)
- et al.
Depth of manual dismantling analysis: a cost-benefit approach
Waste Manage.
(2013) - et al.
Comparative evaluation of environmental contamination and DNA damage induced by electronic-waste in Nigeria and China
Sci. Total Environ.
(2012) - et al.
The major components of particles emitted during recycling of waste printed circuit boards in a typical e-waste workshop of South China
Atmos. Environ.
(2010) - et al.
High levels of antimony in dust from e-waste recycling in southeastern China
Sci. Total Environ.
(2011) - et al.
A review of environmental fate, body burdens, and human health risk assessment of PCDD/Fs at two typical electronic waste recycling sites in China
Sci. Total Environ.
(2013) - et al.
Informal electronic waste recycling: a sector review with special focus on China
Waste Manage.
(2011) - et al.
Atmospheric levels and cytotoxicity of PAHs and heavy metals in TSP and PM2.5 at an electronic waste recycling site in southeast China
Atmos. Environ.
(2006) - et al.
Distribution of PBDEs in air particles from an electronic waste recycling site compared with Guangzhou and Hong Kong, South China
Environ. Int.
(2007) - et al.
High levels of heavy metals in rice (Oryza sativa L.) from a typical e-waste recycling area in southeast China and its potential risk to human health
Chemosphere
(2008) - et al.
Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: a systematic review
Lancet Global Health
(2013)
Monitoring of lead, cadmium, chromium and nickel in placenta from an e-waste recycling town in China
Sci. Total Environ.
Heavy metal contamination in soils and vegetables near an e-waste processing site, South China
J. Hazard. Mater.
The Basel Convention and e-waste: translation of scientific uncertainty to protective policy
Lancet Global Health
Atmospheric deposition of PAHs, PCBs, and organochlorine pesticides to Corpus Christi Bay, Texas
Atmos. Environ.
An environmental friendly recovery production line of waste toner cartridges
J. Hazard. Mater.
A human health risk assessment of mercury species in soil and food around compact fluorescent lamp factories in Zhejiang Province, PR China
J. Hazard. Mater.
A systematic review of the human body burden of e-waste exposure in China
Environ. Int.
Sustainability evaluation of an e-waste treatment enterprise based on emergy analysis in China
Ecol. Eng.
Life cycle assessment of TV sets in China: a case study of the impacts of CRT monitors
Waste Manage.
Heavy metal and persistent organic compound contamination in soil from Wenling: an emerging e-waste recycling city in Taizhou area, China
J. Hazard. Mater.
Chemical and ecotoxicological analyses of sediments and elutriates of contaminated rivers due to e-waste recycling activities using a diverse battery of bioassays
Environ. Pollut.
Brominated flame retardants in house dust from e-waste recycling and urban areas in South China: implications on human exposure
Environ. Int.
Present status of e-waste disposal and recycling in China
Proc. Environ. Sci.
Evidence of excessive releases of metals from primitive e-waste processing in Guiyu, China
Environ. Pollut.
Implications for the carrying capacity of lithium reserve in China
Resour. Conserv. Recycl.
Perspective of electronic waste management in China based on a legislation comparison between China and the EU
J. Cleaner Prod.
Downregulation of placental S100P is associated with cadmium exposure in Guiyu, an e-waste recycling town in China
Sci. Total Environ.
Heavy metal contaminations in a soil-rice system: identification of spatial dependence in relation to soil properties of paddy fields
J. Hazard. Mater.
The relationship between magnetic parameters and heavy metal contents of indoor dust in e-waste recycling impacted area, Southeast China
Sci. Total Environ.
Influence of heavy metal pollution on soil animal community in Luqiao, Taizhou City
Acta Ecol. Sinica
Electrical and electronic waste: a global environmental problem
Waste Manage. Res.
Electronic waste: a growing concern in today’s environment
Econom. Res. Int.
Study on adverse impact of e-waste disassembly on surface sediment in East China by chemical analysis and bioassays
J. Soils Sediments
Cited by (196)
Revealing the long way towards lead-free plastic in China through dynamic material flow analysis of lead salt heat stabilizers in PVC products
2024, Resources, Conservation and RecyclingQuantitative identification of the co-exposure effects of e-waste pollutants on human oxidative stress by explainable machine learning
2024, Journal of Hazardous MaterialsAssessing the adverse impacts of biodegradable plastic bags: Chemical elements and radionuclides considerations
2024, Journal of Environmental Chemical EngineeringTrophic transfer of heavy metals in a wetland food web from an abandoned e-waste recycling site in South China
2023, Science of the Total EnvironmentSorption in soils and bioaccumulation potential of 2,2′-DiBBPA
2023, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety