Trends in Ecology & Evolution
OpinionTaking the Animals’ Perspective Regarding Anthropogenic Underwater Sound
Section snippets
Regulation and Anthropogenic Sound
Marine mammals, fishes, and many aquatic invertebrates use sound for communication and/or gaining information about their environment (Box 1). Indeed, because sound propagates far better in water than in air, it provides information to animals from far greater distances, and under a wider range of environmental conditions, than do other sensory stimuli (e.g., [1,2]). Interference with an animal’s ability to detect sounds may affect its fitness and survival and thus have adverse impacts (see
Anthropogenic Sound and Its Potential Impacts
Increased exploitation of the marine environment by sound-producing activities such as geophysical research, sonars, powered vessels, and energy exploration and production (Figure 1) has resulted in concerns that these (and other) underwater sounds could have substantial effects on aquatic life. The possible adverse effects on animals of anthropogenic sounds include death, physical injury, impairment of hearing, physiological stress, and changes in behaviour (Table 1). Behavioural effects can
Regulation and Mitigation of Anthropogenic Sounds
Due to concerns about anthropogenic sound, there have been associated increases in (i) the extent of research directed at understanding the potential impacts of these sounds on animals, populations, and ecosystems; (ii) attempts to develop regulations and guidelines to protect animals from increased sound levels; and (iii) research and development of ways to potentially mitigate these sounds. Mitigation involves taking steps to reduce how harmful or damaging sounds can be.
In this context, there
Where Has All the Research Gone?
It is now evident that the effectiveness of any sound regulation and mitigation depends mainly on knowledge of how the sound affects aquatic life. The problem is, however, that current knowledge is heavily skewed in one direction – towards marine mammals, often referred to as ‘charismatic megafauna,’ as shown by an informal analysis of recent studies.
To informally quantify the level of work on various taxa, we examined the distribution of papers at the last four meetings on the ‘Effects of
Why the Research Disparity?
Certainly, one reason for this disparity in research is that marine mammals have a large ‘fan base.’ This interest by the public gets translated into pressure on regulators and funding agencies to concentrate on supporting marine mammal work. In the USA, the Marine Mammal Protection Act (Public Law 92-522) provides these animals with strong protection and prohibits their removal from US waters and by US citizens on the high seas.
In contrast, perhaps except for salmon, sharks, and Nemo, a
Concluding Remarks: What Must be Done?
It is our view that it has become critical to conduct research that will enable aquatic industries and regulators to better understand, and then to reduce or eliminate, the effects of anthropogenic sounds on the physical conditions, physiology, and behaviour of aquatic animals, and especially to mitigate those sounds that might impact their population dynamics (see Outstanding Questions). One of the problems for those concerned with anthropogenic sound, or attempting to make sound-generating
Acknowledgements
We thank our colleagues Jill Lewandowski, Amy Scholik-Schlomer, and Mark Tasker for very valuable comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. We also thank two reviewers and the editor of TREE for suggestions that very much helped us to improve the manuscript.
Glossary
- Dose–response assessment
- the relationship between the sound exposure level and the magnitude of the response (e.g., effect).
- Effects
- changes caused by sound exposure that are a departure from a prior state, condition, or situation, which is called the ‘baseline’ condition (from [39]).
- Impacts
- biologically significant effects (see definition) that reflect a change whose direction, magnitude, and/or duration is sufficient to have consequences for the fitness of individual fish or populations of fishes
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All authors contributed equally to this paper
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Twitter: @UMDScience (A.N. Popper) and @dhigroup (F. Thomsen).