Models of science–policy interaction: Exploring approaches to Bisphenol A management in the EU
Introduction
Environmental and human health decision making is often based on information or evidence provided by science (Kriebel et al., 2001). However, for many issues, information and knowledge are largely missing. For example, in the case of industrial chemicals, there is very limited knowledge about the toxicity and ecotoxicity of many substances and mixtures, or the number of chemicals in use and levels of them found in the environment (Rudén and Gilek, 2010, Karlsson et al., 2011).
Despite these well-known problems, management of many environmental and human health risks (including chemicals) is often based on scientific knowledge generated, for example, through risk assessments, cost–benefit analyses, and modelling (Merkhofer, 1987, Russell and Gruber, 1987, Kiker et al., 2005). From this view, a linear science–policy model is derived. In this ‘modern’ model, science is seen to be capable of ‘speaking truth to power’ by delivering value-free, objective input to rational political decision making (Funtowicz and Strand, 2007).
Whilst looking at the literature in the area of science–policy interaction, several alternatives to the modern model have been developed (Bäckstrand, 2003, Funtowicz and Strand, 2007, Pielke, 2007, Stirling, 2007, Van den Hove, 2007, Renn, 2008, De Santo, 2010). For example, nowadays it is rather common to argue for a precautionary model of science–policy interaction in chemicals management (Karlsson, 2006). Furthermore, there are several other models of science–policy interaction: Funtowicz and Strand (2007) classified them as models of consensus, demarcation, and extended participation. However, with the precautionary model as a well-studied exception, it is not known to what extent and in which ways these models are used in practice, especially in the area of chemicals management.
To further investigate science–policy (risk assessment–risk management) interaction under uncertainty in practice, I selected a specific case, characterized by uncertainty and controversies — a disputed endocrine-disrupting substance: Bisphenol A (BPA) (Vandenberg et al., 2013). BPA is used in products such as plastic bottles, food can linings, plastic cups, and sealants. Exposure to BPA has been shown in studies to cause adverse health effects in animals, but clear epidemiological evidence of health effects in humans is missing (Vandenberg et al., 2013). Despite a growing flora of publications linking BPA to several toxic effects in animals, e.g. physical and neurological problems, development problems, obesity, and cancer (Maffini et al., 2006, Sekizawa, 2008), it is still debated which animal studies can be trusted as relevant and reliable for assessing risks to humans (Beronius et al., 2010). Consequently, some reports claim no concern for human health and environmental effects (Ryan et al., 2010) whilst others state the opposite (Beronius et al., 2010).
There are several reasons behind this disagreement, such as epistemic uncertainty (described, for example, in Udovyk and Gilek, 2013) on the non-monotonic dose–response curves for BPA, and on potentially sensitive windows of exposure of human infants (Gierthy, 2002, Flint et al., 2012). However, the central disagreement has been stated to mainly depend on a different type of uncertainty, connected to the risk assessor's divergent views on the reliability and relevance of non-standardized studies on the endocrine-related effects of BPA at low doses (Beronius et al., 2010). This type of uncertainty is described by Udovyk and Gilek (2013) as uncertainty in a knowledge relationship, and by Walker et al. (2003) in terms of ‘too much knowledge or too different knowledge’.
A general reaction to the divergent findings from toxicity studies investigating BPA has been concerns about the suitability of using BPA in consumer products (Scruggs, 2012), as well as concerns about its further presence in the environment (Flint et al., 2012). In response to these concerns, regulations have been adopted by a number of countries and at the international level (e.g. Canada, France, and the EU). However, regulatory responses are rather heterogeneous and, in general, there is no globally agreed regulatory strategy regarding BPA.
Since management of chemicals occurs at different geopolitical levels (e.g. international, EU, national, local municipality), it is clear that management approaches and associated science–policy interactions can play out differently at the various levels. This diversity gives more opportunities to observe alternative models of science–policy interaction. In practical terms, this study zooms in on chemicals management in a particular region of Europe: Sweden, specifically the municipality of Gothenburg.
Consequently, by exploring BPA management in the region, the study aims, first, to improve the understanding of chemicals risk management and associated science–policy (risk assessment–risk management) interaction under uncertainty, contributing to the academic discourse on management under uncertainty. Second, it aims to provide food for thought and reflection on models of science–policy interaction and their limitations under uncertainty in decision making on chemicals risk in general and BPA in particular.
Section snippets
Analytical framework and methods
Chemicals management in Europe simultaneously occurs at various interconnected geopolitical levels (Udovyk et al., 2010) (see Table 1). To operationalize the research questions, I selected one particular region in Europe (EU – Sweden – the Swedish municipality of Gothenburg; see the description in Table 1). The region is a relevant case, as the governing system for environmental and health risks has been depicted as a policy pioneer (Feistel et al., 2008, Kern and Löffelsend, 2008).
EU level
The EU Commission approached the problem of BPA by requesting a risk assessment from the European Food Safety Authority, following a rather modern approach to science–policy interaction (Table 4). During our interviews, the respondent from EFSA outlined the consensus-based procedure of decision making in the studies that were selected for the assessment. However, in general (as mentioned by the interviewee and in the literature), studies that followed standardized toxicity test guidelines (US
Modern model of science–policy interaction and its limitations
This study has shown that the majority of the analysed levels of decision making used elements of the modern model of science–policy interaction. In particular, scientific risk assessment was required in order to proceed with risk management options at the EU and national levels. Thus, in a general sense, this can be described as a modern model of science–policy interaction, where ‘science speaks truth to policy’ (Wildavsky, 1979).
Based on the empirical data collected in this study, it was
Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to understand current approaches to chemicals management and associated science–policy interaction models. The study showed that chemicals management and associated science–policy interaction can often be described by the modern model, where science is assumed capable of ‘speaking truth to policy’, despite significant uncertainty and scientific disagreements about the risks posed by BPA to human and environmental health.
The study highlighted existing limitations of
Acknowledgements
The research leading to these results was funded by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (2007–2013) under grant agreement no. 217246 made with the joint Baltic Sea research and development programme BONUS, as well as from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, the Swedish Research Council FORMAS, and the Foundation for Baltic and East European Studies.
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