A review of the environmental and human impacts from wind parks. A case study for the Prefecture of Lasithi, Crete

doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.041

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Volume 16, Issue 5, June 2012, Pages 2850-2863

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.041 Get rights and content

Abstract

A review of the wind parks’ environmental and human impacts, based on extended research on the most recent relevant bibliography, is carried out in the present paper. The results of former studies are presented on:

•
the impact on the aesthetic of the landscape
•
the noise emissions
•
the impact on birds and wildlife
•
the shadow flicker from wind turbines
•
the occupation of land
•
the wind turbines electromagnetic interference.

In addition, the results of case studies for selected wind parks installed in the Prefecture of Lasithi in Crete, concerning their visual impacts and their noise emissions are presented. A statistical survey implemented in Crete concerning the public opinion on wind parks and wind energy is also presented.

The accomplished tasks indicated:

•
There are no serious impacts caused by the installation or operation of wind parks. The wind parks’ impacts may be eliminated with the optimum selection of the installation sites and the appropriate siting of the wind turbines.
•
People in Crete exhibit a strongly positive attitude towards wind energy and wind parks, although they are not willing to pay a higher price for the electricity produced from wind parks.

A map with the optimum sites for wind parks installation in the Prefecture of Lasithi was constructed, taking into account all possible restrictions concerning the use of land, the environmental conservation and the impacts on human life. This map can constitute a flexible tool for the optimum site selection for a wind park installation, contributing to the elimination of environmental and human impacts of new wind parks, to the minimization of the required project's licensing time and to the limitation of possible negative public reactions.

Introduction

Wind power is considered as one of the cleanest energy sources, with mild impacts on the environment, on wildlife and on human life, as far as the production of electricity from modern wind turbines is concerned. The impacts on the aesthetic of the landscape, the noise emissions, the impacts on birds and wildlife, the occupation of land, the wind turbines’ shadow flicker and the electromagnetic interference are mentioned in relevant former studies as the most serious environmental and human impacts of wind parks. The effect of the abovementioned impacts is always local, namely it is restricted in the vicinity of a wind park's site, unlike the impacts of conventional electricity production technologies (greenhouse gases emissions, nuclear waste), that exhibit a global attribute. The environmental impacts from the most common electricity production technologies are summarized in Table 1. From Table 1 it is obvious that the environmental and human impacts of wind parks are significantly less important compared to the respective impacts of conventional electricity production technologies (thermal or nuclear power plants).

Despite the abovementioned facts, under certain circumstances, the environmental and human impacts of a wind park can be important for the neighbouring area of its installation site. On this occasion, significant negative public reactions may appear during the wind park's licensing, installation or operation [1], [2], [3], [4]. Such reactions can only be treated beforehand with the appropriate selection of the wind park's installation site, as well as with carefully planned dissemination policies [5], [6], [7].

The present article investigates environmental and human impacts of wind parks. The article aims to evaluate the impacts of wind parks and to investigate the prerequisites for a wind park's mild and secure operation. This aim is approached with the following tasks:

At a first stage, a review of the impacts of wind parks, based on extensive research on the most recent relevant bibliography is fulfilled. With this task, the global experience on the environmental and human impacts of wind parks, as provided by different teams of scientists (engineers, biologists, environmentalists), is gathered.

At a second stage, a case study is fulfilled for the Prefecture of Lasithi, in Crete. This study includes visual impacts evaluation and noise emissions calculation for selected wind parks installed in the Prefecture of Lasithi. The case study is integrated with a statistical survey implemented in Crete about the public opinion concerning wind parks and wind energy.

Finally, following the results of both the former relevant articles and the implemented case study in Crete, a map with the optimum sites for wind parks installation in the Prefecture of Lasithi is constructed, taking into account all possible restrictions concerning the use of land, the impact on human life and the environmental conservation. This map can constitute a flexible decision tool for the optimum site selection for a wind park installation, contributing both to the limitation of the environmental and human impacts of the new wind parks, to the minimization of the required project's licensing time and to the elimination of possible negative public reactions.

Section snippets

Visual impact

Visual impact of wind parks is based on the influence on a landscape's view, caused by the installation of huge technical constructions, especially in sites with a lack of any other human interference. The required network for the produced electricity transportation affects the landscape as well.

The wind turbines’ size, in combination with their installation positions (usually at the top of hills or mountains) make them visible even from great distances. Consequently, the influence of wind

A case study for the Prefecture of Lasithi, Crete

The Prefecture of Lasithi is the most eastern Prefecture of Crete, with a population of 76,319 people (in 2001) and an area of 1823 km². The remarkable wind potential of Lasithi Prefecture is depicted in the Prefecture's wind atlas in Fig. 2 [49]. Wind parks with a total nominal power of 95 MW were installed in Prefecture at the end of 2007. This figure corresponds to the 68% of the total wind power installed in Crete at the end of 2007. The installed wind parks’ sites in Lasithi Prefecture are

Visual impacts

The visual impacts of the examined wind parks in the Prefecture of Lasithi were evaluated with:

a.
The calculation of the visual impact zone of each wind park. This task was accomplished with the use of the Topos 43D software, Denmark. The visual impact zones were calculated to a maximum distance of 10 km from each wind park's installation site.
b.
The construction of the installed wind turbines 3D models (Google Sketch Up) and the insertion of these models in Google Earth environment at each wind

Public opinion on wind energy and wind parks in Crete

A statistical survey on the public opinion on wind energy and wind parks in Crete was implemented in 2006. A sample of 100 people was selected, including:

•
residents of towns and villages
•
people of different ages
•
people of different educational levels
•
people living close to an existing wind park or not.

The statistical survey sample is analysed in Table 7. The sample was distributed in Crete's four Prefectures in terms of their permanent populations. People from towns and villages were included in

The map of optimum wind parks installation sites in the Prefecture of Lasithi

A map with the optimum sites in the Prefecture of Lasithi for the installation of wind parks was constructed. All possible restrictions, regarding the use of land, the environmental conservation and the impacts on human life were taken into account. Such restrictions may be impacts on wildlife, impacts on existing services (airports, antennas, etc.), visual and noise impacts on archaeological monuments, tourist destinations, residential areas, etc. These restrictions, if not taken into account

Conclusions

The wind parks environmental and human impacts are investigated in this article. The aim of the article is to evaluate the wind parks’ impacts and to investigate the prerequisites for a wind park's mild and secure operation. This is achieved with the following tasks:

•
an extended research on the most recent available bibliography and a review of the widely studied wind parks’ environmental and human impacts worldwide
•
a case study in the Prefecture of Lasithi, that included visual impacts

Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges:

•
Interreg IIIC North for the financing of the project “Regional Wind Technology and Knowledge Transfer Strategies”, within its framework the case studies for the Prefecture of Lasithi were accomplished.
•
Prefecture of Lasithi Authority, and especially Mr. Emmanouel Zacharenakis, Head of Design and Development Office, for our excellent collaboration.
•
Mr. Georgios Sartzetakis, Mechanical Engineer of the Technological Educational Institute of Crete, for his

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A review of the environmental and human impacts from wind parks. A case study for the Prefecture of Lasithi, Crete

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Visual impact

A case study for the Prefecture of Lasithi, Crete

Visual impacts

Public opinion on wind energy and wind parks in Crete

The map of optimum wind parks installation sites in the Prefecture of Lasithi

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics

Energy Policy

Energy Policy

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Energy Policy

Landscape and Urban Planning

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Renewable Energy

Applied Energy

Renewable Energy

Journal of Sound and Vibration

Journal of Sound and Vibration

Renewable Energy

Journal of Sound and Vibration

Journal of Environmental Psychology

Journal for Nature Conservation

Current Biology

Biological Conservation

Applied Energy

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Intention to respond to local wind turbines: the role of attitudes and visual perception

Wind Energy

Beyond NIMBYism: towards an integrated framework for understanding public perceptions of wind energy

Wind Energy

Scenic perceptions of the visual effects of wind farms on South Australian Landscapes

Geographical Research

Application of a ray theory model to the prediction of noise emissions from isolated wind turbines and wind parks

Wind Energy

Assessing the impacts of wind farms on birds

Ibis

Upland raptors and the assessment of wind farm impacts

Ibis