Comparative analysis of phosphorus use within national and local economies in China

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Abstract

Material/substance flow analysis (MFA/SFA) approaches have been broadly applied to bridge the knowledge gaps in material metabolism within modern economies—and the environmental consequences it cause. While the structural feature of material use can vary along a physical dimension, there is a need to analytically normalize the implications derived from various material flow models to facilitate policy making, with respect to the associated socio-economic profiles. This is particularly important in accounting for material throughput, given various data uncertainties. This study attempts to develop an illustrative framework combining the mass balance approach [Adriaanse A, Bringezu S, Hammond A, et al. Resource flows: the material basis of industrial economies. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute; 1997] and proposed material use indictors at a substance level. The methodology is then applied for the case of the phosphorus cycle in China, the largest developing country currently in transition. Our discussion is conducted on the basis of two updated static SFA models which have been developed recently [Liu Y, Mol APJ, Chen JN. Material flow and ecological restructuring in China: the case of phosphorus. J Ind Ecol 2004;8(3):103–20; Liu Y, Chen JN, Mol APJ. Evaluation of phosphorus flows in the Dianchi Watershed, southwest of China. Popul Environ 2004;25(6):637–56]. Taking mineral reserve, commodities trading and environmental accumulation into account, the aggregated physical features of phosphorus flows are identified at both the national and local levels, respectively, by treating the overall lifespan of substance use within these economies as a whole. Material use efficiencies of six subsystems – involving the phosphate industry, crop farming, intensive livestock husbandry, family-based animal rearing and urban and rural households – are analyzed. The results highlight that both the aggregate and sectoral features of phosphorus use varies significantly with the shift in geographic boundary from national to local economies. With respect to the substantial differentiations, the discussion on desired structural adjustment strategies and efficiency-enhancement options towards a systematical improvement of phosphorus use could facilitate future rational policy-making.

Introduction

Material/substance flow analysis (MFA/SFA) approaches have been employed to connect environmental problems to their economic origins in order to offer ways in identifying potential solutions (Ayres and Ayres, 1996, Ayres and Ayres, 1998, Bringezu, 2003, Brunner and Rechberger, 2004). In doing so, the physical profiles of economic societies – with regards to both efficiency and effectiveness of resource use – are exploited (Ayres and Ayres, 2002, Liu, 2005). The questions can be addressed, consequently, as to what extent human societies seek to efficiently mobilize materials from nature – in production, consumption, accumulation and emission terms – and to what extent waste materials are effectively processed – with regards to immediate and potential future environmental impact.

In contrast to numerical models (which are constructed to predominantly rely on natural science-based monitoring and experimental data), MFA/SFA models follow the mass conservation principle in a more conceptual and experimental way. It is not surprising that an examination of a MFA/SFA model is rather difficult; in the sense that, physical interactions between human societies and the environment are more complicated than people presume. Physical flows, unlike capital or cash flows, are seldom subject to full monitoring and documentation at the various levels of the economy. Physical flows are therefore subject to having significant data uncertainties. Consequently, unlike the LCA, PIOT and bulk-flow approaches, the illustration of physical flows can be displayed in various ways—leading to the problem that an explanation of results derived from a MFA or SFA model could vary considerably. This seriously undermines the capability of MFA/SFA as an ordinary tool for material-based policy making.

To facilitate understanding of the physical features of, and differences between, national and regional phosphorus flows in China, we developed an integrated framework, examining the efficiency of phosphorus use in the economy as a whole, as well as in associated individual sectors of production and consumption. The methodology consists of a systematic approach based on five principles for reducing data uncertainties. It also employs a standardized analytical paradigm, combining the bulky mass balance framework posited by Adriaanse et al. (1997) and four material use efficiency indicators in relation to material production, accumulation, recycling and emission. This enables us to combine both aggregated and sectoral physical features of material use within economies. The methodology is then applied to the case of phosphorus flows in China as a whole, and in a selected Chinese local economy. Based on recognized material use patterns, we draw up an agenda for policy analysis by identifying critical flows that closely relate to the eutrophication of surface water in the final section of this article.

Section snippets

Principles to reduce data uncertainty

Assessing material flows is often restricted by current data availability, since many physical processes are not subject to quantitative monitoring in contemporary societies—especially in developing countries. Together with the related problem of data inconsistency, this undermines the accuracy and reliability of MFA/SFA models, therefore undermining the possibility of constructing material-based models in less developed countries and regions. Despite the continuous improvement of national

National phosphorus metabolism

Phosphate rock is a non-renewable resource, disregarding the tens of millions of years needed for geological transformation from ocean sediments (Emsley, 1980, Follmi, 1996, Grove, 1992). Today, enormous quantities of phosphates are extracted annually from the earth's crust. Most are then applied to agricultural soils where phosphorus availability declines because of removal in harvested crops, and immobilization by biochemical bonding with clay.

China – being the second largest phosphorus

Sectoral metabolic efficiency

Following the discussion on the aggregate characteristics of phosphorus flows, we now turn to apply the four material use efficiency indicators to illuminate the sectoral configurations of phosphorus metabolism of each involved productive or consumptive sector. The sectoral phosphorus-based efficiencies of production, emission, accumulation and recycling are simply defined as a ratio of the outflow divided by the inflow. In addition, internal reuses of phosphorus are treated as a part of the

Discussions: setting an agenda for policy analysis

In this article we have focused on the physical profiles of phosphorus flows within the national economy, and one regional economy. The mass balance calculations present to what extent phosphorus was efficiently mobilized and processed within the societal metabolism. The results illustrate that phosphorus cycles in China, in general, operate in a high-intensive but “open-loop” way. This implies that, to a large extent, the Chinese economy has been increasingly “materialized” with phosphorus.

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