Arctic science diplomacy of Norway: A case study of svalbard
Introduction
Svalbard has long been among the priorities of the Norwegian government both as a base for resource exploitation and polar exploration. Owing to the integration of the Arctic into international economic and political systems (Southcott and Heininen, 2010) and the decrease in coal mining activities due to falling prices, the Norwegian government has accelerated its efforts to develop a modern research community in the region. While the Spitsbergen Treaty (also known as Svalbard Treaty) provides a common ground for international scientific collaboration, the installation of satellite ground station by European Space Research Organization in Ny-Ålesund in 1964, the promotion of Ny-Ålesund as a research hub by Norwegian authorities from the late 1980s onwards, as well as research activities propelled by Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI) (Paglia, 2020) has transformed Svalbard into one of the most prominent Arctic science diplomacy cases.
Published in 2009, the Norwegian Government's desire to develop Svalbard as an international platform for polar research and environmental monitoring was clearly outlined in a White Paper for the first time. The next White Paper published in 2016 further boosted the government's desire to take a leading role while employing research leadership, strengthening international coordination and cooperation, improving research quality, prioritizing scientific activities and providing open access to research data.
Owing to its unique location and easy access opportunities for researchers and students, a variety of applied Arctic research and education programmes within the university center, research facilities and substantial infrastructures well-connected to international networks, professional and social research environment assuring safety routines and regulations, Svalbard has transformed into one of the most significant Arctic research and higher education bases. Herein, answering two questions would portray the transformation of research communities in detail within the archipelago; (i) how the research infrastructure has developed in time, (ii) how the Arctic research infrastructure has connected scientists from the Arctic and non-Arctic states.
On the other hand, “Strategic Business Plan for Svalbard”, which asserts that the research and education sector will double in near future (Svalbard Business Association, 2014), signals important structural changes in the future. Besides, recent studies on science diplomacy indicate that the term science diplomacy has innate competitive qualities in addition to its altruistic dimensions (Ruffini, 2020; Ruffin and Ruland, 2022; Everett and Halaskova, 2022). Therefore, confounding discourses of competition and collaboration revolving around the Arctic research attract growing attention. Since Norway's approach to govern Svalbard is asserted as defending its national policy interests in a competitive manner while being obliged to tolerate presence of other actors on the archipelago and collaborate with them to address the negative effects of climate change presents a unique case for investigating the dual nature of science diplomacy.
Accordingly, this article aims to discuss the evolution of scientific communities in Svalbard from a science diplomacy perspective and present future implications of structural changes within these communities. At first, the evolution and institutionalization process of science diplomacy and the creation of research communities within the Arctic is discussed. Since the mode and practices of science diplomacy are grounded on a country's historical background, its foreign policy approaches, the creation of its scientific institutions, its diplomatic practices, and the nexus between diplomacy and science is predetermined by state interests, community values, and individual creativity (Krasnyak, 2020). Therefore, after a brief introduction of Norwegian perspectives in Arctic science diplomacy, the development of research communities in Svalbard is examined in detail from a historical perspective to ensure a thorough background for our case analysis. The internationalization process of Arctic research is explored within the Arctic science diplomacy framework. Findings are further discussed in the conclusion part.
Section snippets
Evolution and institutionalization process of the term science diplomacy
Although the very notion of science diplomacy has been institutionalized recently, it has deep roots throughout history. In the broadest sense, science diplomacy is defined as ‘the use of scientific collaborations among nations to address the common problems’ (Fedoroff, 2009, p. 9). This definition is further expanded by The European Commission (2016) as "the use of science to prevent conflicts and crises, underpin policy making, and improve international relations in conflict areas where the
Science diplomacy and the creation of research communities in the Arctic
The first formal dialogue initiated between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Russian Federation by applying methods and elements of science diplomacy was on ‘Environmental Security in the Arctic Ocean’ in 2010 (Berkman and Vylegzhanin, 2012). In the following years, hosted by the Cambridge University, The NATO-Russia dialogue expanded to seventeen nations involving eight Arctic states as well as representatives of indigenous communities and interdisciplinary mix of
Norwegian perspectives in Arctic science diplomacy
Norway occupies a leading position in polar research through paying special attention to its science diplomacy process. Norway's endeavours for international scientific cooperation date back to the 19th century with the participation in the Inter-Parliamentary Union and the Institute of International Law as well as the Nobel Institute and Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. According to a recent report published by the Research Council of Norway (2017), science diplomacy
A historical perspective on the development of Arctic research communities in svalbard
The intrepid explorer Fridtjof Nansen is regarded by many people as the father of modern Norway owing to the famous Fram Expedition conducted between 1893 and 1896. These dates coincide with the glory days of the Norwegian polar research which includes the period from 1880 to 1940 (Bones, 2007). Since it was the most important and sensational national polar research and observation until then, the Fram Expedition turned into a national symbol for Norway.
Being a remote Norwegian archipelago with
Conclusion
As a leading polar country, Norway has been consolidating its sovereignty over Svalbard by promoting international scientific research. Several nations have established Arctic research stations within the territory and proceeded to conduct research under the provisions of the Spitsbergen Treaty. While Norwegian science diplomacy for Svalbard is promoted and contextualized by the Spitsbergen Treaty, Norway continues to strengthen international research infrastructure and promote international
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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