Reflections on the ecosystem services of whales and valuing their contribution to human well-being
Introduction
Ecosystem services (ES) relate to the gains in human well-being secured, either directly or directly, from the natural environment (Costanza et al., 1997; Daily, 1997; MEA, 2005; Haines-Young and Potschin, 2010). Determining the physical links between the processes and functionality of ecosystems and valuing their contribution to human well-being is of considerable importance to a broad range of decision-making contexts (MEA, 2005), including spatial planning, conservation policy formation, and evaluations of the trade-offs associated with economic development. The oceans on a collective scale represent the largest ecosystem on the planet, providing the world's largest carbon sink and a source of protein for more than one billion people (Blasiak et al., 2015). The overall scale of marine ES is likely considerable, approximated by Costanza et al. (2014) as constituting over 65% of the total value of the world's ES. The United Nations has also recognized the importance of marine resources in terms of their contribution to the support and advancement of human well-being, with Goal 14 of the Sustainable Development Goals, ‘Life Below Water’, emphasizing the need to “conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development” (UN General Assembly, 2015, p. 23).
Despite an increase in the number of ES valuation studies in a marine context, the evidence demonstrating their actual use in decision-making contexts is currently sparse (Guo and Kildow, 2015; Hanley et al., 2015). A number of publications have observed an information deficit relating to marine ES (Halpern et al., 2012; Maes et al., 2012; Villasante et al., 2016; Nahuelhual et al., 2017). The location of many marine ES – especially those derived from the remote high seas – presents particular challenges for ES practitioners (Blasiak et al., 2015; O'Garra, 2017). However, their geographical remoteness should not distract attention from the importance of their physical quantification and valuation across the full spectrum of marine resource contexts, which might otherwise be overlooked or underestimated (Magnussen and Kettunen, 2013; Hasler, 2016; Gunderson et al., 2017). Others have reported on a need for greater collaboration between scientists, decision-makers and environmental economists in order for marine ES valuation studies to be better understood by those surveyed and, ultimately, more widely used by decision-makers (Börger et al., 2014). Torres and Hanley (2016) explain that communication issues have prevented the widespread adoption of non-market valuation studies in a marine context, particularly emphasize the importance of improved cooperation as a means of furthering transdisciplinary work.
The focus of this paper concerns the marine resource context of whales, which have been lightly studied in ES research (Malinauskaite et al., 2020). This is despite obvious socio-ecological interactions, particularly connected to many coastal communities (Torres and Hanley, 2017), and the delivery of multiple benefits to human well-being, such as primary production, nutrient cycling, recreation (including ecotourism), education, food provision, and carbon sequestration (Roman et al., 2014). As far as the authors are aware, the study by Roman et al. (2014) remains the only publication to date to begin to outline, in a thematic rather than location-specific sense, the ES human beings derive from whales. No authors have yet taken the next step, which is to consider how such benefits should be valued, which is necessary in order to better understand the various trade-offs associated with changes to whale populations, such as development pressures, expanded eco-tourism, and climate change. This literature gap was restated in a Workshop Report by the Society for Conservation Biology, which opined that the valuation of whale ES represents an important step towards improved marine policy-making (Roman and Galletti, 2017). The three aims of this review paper are as follows: (1) identify an inventory of whale ES, (2) consider how the respective whale ES could be valued and review the likely threats and trade-offs affecting whale ES, and (3) discuss the likely implications for decision-making, given the potential presence of value pluralism, the idea that there may be several equally valid and fundamental values in conflict with each other.
This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 classifies an inventory of whale ES using the Common International Classification for Ecosystem Services (CICES) typology. Section 3 constructs a framework for valuing the respective whale ES, linking these to the various economic and non-monetary techniques available, and outlines some of the likely threats and trade-offs of economic developments and environmental change. In addition, existing valuation studies in the context of whale ES are outlined and the implications of value pluralism analysed in terms of the need for decision-support tools that can integrated multiple values of the environment. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) is explored as an example of one possible integrated valuation technique that could be applied in a whale ES context. Section 4 then discusses the challenges of conducting economic, non-monetary and integrated valuation studies in a whale ES and general marine context, before reflecting on opportunities for further whale ES research.
Section snippets
Defining and classifying ES
A wide range of definitions exist for ES, all of which derive from an understanding that ES relate to human well-being benefits obtained from ecological phenomena. Perhaps the most widely cited definition has been set out by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), which articulates ES as the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems (MEA, 2005). This understanding has been further advanced through the delineations of Fisher et al. (2009), who contributed three main points: (1) that ES are
Valuing ES and concept of value pluralism
The importance of marine ecosystems to human welfare and the public goods characteristics of the many ES sourced from such environments adds weight to arguments in favour of gaining better understanding of these benefits (Hattam et al., 2015; Torres and Hanley, 2017). Studies such as TEEB (2010) have helped to highlight the importance of ES in terms of their contribution to marketed and non-marketed economic activities, and human well-being. They have also underscored the need to embed ES
Challenges of valuing whale ES and conducting ES valuation in marine contexts
The challenges involved in conducting ES assessments involving whales have many parallels with the difficulties of conducting such studies in other marine contexts, and indeed in general. An important consideration relating to Table 2 is that although specific non-market valuation techniques may be available for valuing many whale ES, the particular study context will be a determining factor in their ultimate suitability. In the case of provisioning resources such as whale meat, market pricing
Conclusion
Whale ES are diverse and provide an example of human well-being benefits that have been largely ignored in the ES literature, which contains neither a detailed thematic review of services nor consideration of how these can best be valued in order to inform decision-makers. The example of whale ES highlights issues common to the valuation of marine ES in general, whereby different types of values – utilitarian and socio-cultural – may underpin the sourcing of human well-being. Through this
Declaration of competing interest
I wish to confirm that we have read, understood and fully complied with the journal's ethical guidelines. This manuscript is our own work and has not been submitted for review to another journal. There are no conflicts of interest that impinge on the publication of this paper.
Acknowledgements
This paper has been funded by NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Communities).
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