Marine conservation science and governance in North–West Europe: Conservation planning and international law and policy
Highlights
► European legislation has significant political buy-in and widespread support. ► However, approaches that guide marine conservation planning neglect key aspects of best practice. ► Best practice involves setting targets and incorporating cost and implementation data. ► Failure to adopt best practice has led to increased stakeholder conflict and lost opportunities. ► Fulfilling European objectives will require more transparent and coordinated strategies.
Introduction
There is international agreement on the need for increased protection of the world’s oceans because of rapid declines in the health of many marine ecosystems [1]. However, protected area (PA) coverage in the marine realm is relatively low, with only 1.17% of the ocean’s surface designated as marine protected areas (MPAs), in contrast to 12.7% of terrestrial areas [2], [3]. In response, many governments have agreed to establish or expand existing MPA networks within their marine jurisdictions to meet globally agreed marine protection targets [4], [5], such as the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) ‘Aichi Target’, which recommends that by 2020, 10% of marine and coastal areas should be covered by MPAs [6], [7]. This interest in establishing MPAs is also reflected in the European Union (EU), where MPAs are increasingly seen as important spatial management tools to address a broad array of management goals, such as biodiversity conservation and sustainable fisheries [8].
However, implementing a network of MPAs in Europe is likely to be challenging because approaches that govern marine conservation are often developed at both the European and national level [9]. Consequently, recent work has called for research to address knowledge gaps about the factors influencing the success of European MPAs [10]. Thus, whilst many commentators have examined the impact of European law and policy on the representation of species and habitats [11], [12], [13], [14], and there is a growing body of evidence on the effectiveness of MPAs in Europe [10], there is no comprehensive review of the combined impacts of marine conservation policy in Europe. This paper addresses this gap by: (i) reviewing the extensive body of marine conservation planning legislation in Northern Europe, defined as the North East Atlantic (Fig. 1); and, (ii) identifying problems with the existing approaches used to guide the selection and designation of MPAs. This involves highlighting several key components of best practice from conservation planning science and proposing how existing measures should be adapted to include such elements.
Section snippets
The current consensus on best practice in conservation planning
It is generally agreed in the scientific literature that the best approach for designing PA networks is systematic conservation planning [15]. This approach is designed to identify priority areas for conservation that ensure the representation and persistence of biodiversity, whilst minimising impacts on stakeholders and increasing the likelihood of implementation [16], [17]. Systematic conservation planning is a process that combines a short-term conservation assessment, which identifies
International and European marine conservation law and policy
There are a number of ‘peripheral’ legal obligations and non-binding provisions that influence biodiversity conservation in Europe [30], [31], which include the following: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar); Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern); Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn); World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD); the Protected Areas Programme of the World Conservation Union
Successes in current European law and policy
Whilst developing PAs in Europe has proven difficult, the European legislation described in Section 3 has significant political buy-in and widespread support [60]. This is highlighted by the rapid expansion of PA networks such as Natura 2000 [43], which currently contains more than 26,000 sites covering 17.5% of the EU territory [48]. The EU also has the clear expertise and legal authority to effectively implement a network of transnational MPAs, which is demonstrated by the Habitats Directive
Conclusion
Marine conservation planning in Europe is often seen as a balancing act between socio-economic and political interests and the need to improve the status of the marine environment [51]. Despite this trade-off, existing approaches have resulted in the rapid expansion of PA networks across Member States, underlining the EU’s ability to implement a network of transnational MPAs. However, existing legislation neglects several key components of best practice from conservation planning, which is
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the European Union under the Interreg IVA Programme that was co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund, as part of the Channel Integrated Approach for Marine Resource Management (CHARM) Phase III Project.
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