Failure mechanisms of Ana Slide from geotechnical evidence, Eivissa Channel, Western Mediterranean Sea
Highlights
► We address the role of methane seepage and seismic loading on a submarine landslide. ► Past methane seepage is inferred from seismic data and magnetic susceptibilities. ► Slope failure due to overpressure by gas expansion is discarded. ► Undrained shear strength degradation due to bubble pressure can explain the failure. ► Seismicity alone can hardly have been the triggering without the presence of gas.
Introduction
Ana Slide covers 6 km2 and is located on the eastern Balearic flank of Eivissa Channel (Fig. 1a). This small landslide is aligned with three other landslides (Joan, Nuna and Jersi, Fig. 1b) along the 0°48′E meridian at water depths ranging from 600 m depth at the rim of the shallowest headscarp (Joan Slide) down to 900 m at the lower edge of the deepest landslide toe (Jersi Slide) (Lastras et al., 2004, Lastras et al., 2007). The current seafloor expression of Ana Slide ranges from 635 m to 790 m of water depth, with an average slope of 1.6° (Lastras et al., 2004) (Fig. 1c). Previous work based on multibeam bathymetry, backscatter and high-resolution seismic reflection profiles indicated that modest mass transfer accompanied the downslope propagation of the deformation front of Ana Slide, which extensively remoulded the underlying slope sediments without necessarily displacing them too far downslope. Only a slight displacement is observed for most of the sediment in the central and lower sections of the landslide (Lastras et al., 2004). Extensional ridges in the headwall area of Ana Slide correspond to detached subvertical slabs of partially disturbed sediments, possibly indicating a retrogressive character (Lastras et al., 2006). The observation that the shear planes of Ana, Joan, Nuna and Jersi landslides correspond to the same seismic reflector (Lastras et al., 2004) points to a likely stratigraphic control of slope stability along the eastern slope of the Eivissa Channel and to common causative factors and triggering mechanisms.
Pockmarks near the headwall scarps of Nuna and Ana slides suggest that fluid escape processes took place in the vicinity of the slides (Lastras et al., 2006, Lastras et al., 2007). Fluid escape structures of the Balearic Promontory have been described as extrusion features by gas of thermogenic origin related to Plio-Quaternary submarine volcanism and faulting (Acosta et al., 2001a, Acosta et al., 2001b, Maillard and Mauffret, in press). Seismic data acquired across Ana Slide (see Fig. 2 in Berndt et al., 2012) show high amplitude anomalies below the failed sediment mass, which are attributed to free gas, even though the polarity of these reflections is ambiguous (Berndt et al., 2012). The presence of methane in the recent past has been also inferred from δ13C analyses on benthic foraminifera Hyalinea balthica and Uvigerina peregrina assemblages from sediment samples extracted from a sediment core recovered at Ana's headwall (Panieri et al., 2012).
The role of gas charging in slope instability is generally related to gas exsolution and overpressure formation during sea-level falls. Sobkowicz and Morgenstern (1984) consider that if equilibrium conditions prevail during undrained unloading (equivalent to sea-level falls) of gassy sediments (i.e. sediments containing large gas bubbles), the pore pressures remain close to the liquid/gas saturation pressure and effective stresses are reduced significantly. Pore pressure response due to changes in total stress such as sea-level falls generates gas exsolution and subsequent loss of effective stress, which leads to a reduction in the strength of the sediment. Other models developed to predict the behaviour of gassy sediments assume that the water phase is continuous, thus remaining valid the principle of effective stress (Wheeler, 1988 and Grozic et al., 2005). According to Wheeler (1988), a lower bound for the undrained shear strength is defined during undrained failure, which allows quantifying the degree of undrained shear strength degradation due to the presence of gas.
In this article we present the geotechnical properties of the upper 28 m of Ana Slide sedimentary succession based on in situ piezocone tests and laboratory analyses and additional tests of sediment cores. The aim of our study is to analyse the failure mechanisms potentially involved in Ana Slide occurrence. To achieve our aim we use the SAMU-3D stability analysis model taking into account the role of (methane) gas charging and seismic loading, for which the geological context is also considered. The role of methane charging as the main causative factor of Ana Slide and, likely, of the neighbouring slope failures in the Eivissa Channel, is evaluated by using Sobkowicz and Morgenstern (1984) and Wheeler (1988) theories.
Section snippets
Geological setting
The Eivissa Channel occupies the western end of the Balearic Promontory, which separates the Valencia Trough to the north from the Algero-Balearic Basin to the south. The Balearic Promontory consists of the Menorca–Mallorca and the Eivissa–Formentera structural blocks, classically viewed as an extension of the external zone of the Betic Ranges in the Iberian Peninsula (Maillard and Mauffret, 1999).
The current physiography of the Balearic Promontory results from Tertiary and older tectonic
Background data
The Eivissa Channel was surveyed in 1995 and 2002 during BIG'95 and MARINADA cruises onboard the research vessel BIO Hespérides, during which swath bathymetry data and TOPAS very-high resolution seismic reflection profiles were acquired (see compilation in Lastras et al., 2004). Side-scan sonar data were collected with the MAK-1M system during the BALICAT survey in 2004 onboard the R/V Professor Logachev (Lastras et al., 2006). Chirp-sonar and sparker seismic reflection profiles and gravity
Intact sedimentary succession
The geotechnical stratigraphy derived from the corrected cone resistance (qt) and the sleeve friction (fs) profiles was established and correlated with seismic reflectors in TOPAS M-3 profile (Fig. 2a). It consists of a top Post-Slide unit (PS) overlying 14 units that slightly thicken downslope (Figs. 2b and 3). The PS unit is rather uniform, with similar qt trend and thickness (~ 2.5 m) at all CPTU sites except site PFM-05S01 in which it is ~ 3 m (Fig. 3). Sharp peaks in u2 profiles at variable
Evidence of past methane seepage
In this section we describe, along a downslope transect of sediment cores, MS profiles that in some cases could be interpreted as an indication of past methane seepage. Core KS18, retrieved from the non-destabilised slope off the upper slide headwall rim, displays low MS values in units PS, U1 and U2 (10–15 · 10− 5 SI/volume units, Fig. 5a), which are consistent with MS measurements in sediment cores recovered at more than 2800 m of water depth in the Balearic Abyssal Plain east of the Balearic
3D-stability back-analysis
We have first reconstructed the pre-slide bathymetry by subtracting the top 2.5 m that we consider representative of the thickness of PS unit and adding the relevant sediment packages where overburden removal is observed (Fig. 14a, b). The layer model required for SAMU-3D is a simplification of the sedimentary architecture shown in Fig. 2b. Since the BFS is at the U6–U7 boundary (or close to it), our layer model consists of 7 layers that represent units U1 to U7 and a 20 m thick basement
Preconditioning factors
The results obtained from the slope stability analysis using the SAMU-3D software demonstrate that the Ana Slide failure (FOS ≤ 1) can be explained by: (i) the presence of gas (methane) in the sediment (9% in unit U7), (ii) seismic loading resulting from PGA ≥ 0.24 g and (iii) the combination of the presence of methane in the sediment with lower concentrations (in unit U7) and seismic loading resulting from 0.06 g ≤ PGA < 0.24. This shows that the accumulation of free methane in a particular
Conclusions
This study investigates the failure mechanisms of Ana Slide, a 6 km2 shallow submarine landslide located between 635 and 790 m of water depth in the slope west of the Balearic Promontory within the Eivissa Channel, with an estimated age of ~ 61.5 ka. The basal failure surface (BFS) developed between two units named U7 (below) and U6 (above). Unit U6 is interpreted to be finer than U7, which appears coarser at its base. Subtle contrasting hydro-mechanical properties are found at the U7–U6 boundary.
List of symbols
- BP
before present
- Bq
pore pressure ratio
- c′
effective cohesion, kPa
- d
volume fraction of gas bubbles
- CU
consolidated-undrained
- FOS
factor of safety
- fs
sleeve friction, kPa
- kyr
kilo year, used for time intervals
- ka
kilo anni, used for absolute age
- MS
magnetic susceptibility
- Mw
magnitude moment
- Nσt
cone parameter = (qt − σv0)/σ′p
- Nkt
cone factor
- OCR
overconsolidation ratio
- p′
mean effective stress (in triaxial tests), kPa
- PGA
peak ground acceleration, m∙s− 2
- q
deviatoric stress (in triaxial tests), kPa
- qc
cone tip resistance, kPa
- qt
Acknowledgements
We thank IFREMER team and crew of R/V L'Atalante for their support during the PRISME 2007 cruise. This work has been co-founded by IFREMER and the CONSOLIDER 2010-GRACCIE project (Ref. CSD2007-00067), the EC HERMIONE project (contract no 226354-HERMIONE), and a Generalitat de Catalunya grant for excellence research groups to GRC Geociències Marines (Ref. 2009 SGR 1305). The publication reflects only the views of the authors. The EC is not liable for any use that may be made of the information
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