Swimming exercise protective effect on waterpipe tobacco smoking-induced impairment of memory and oxidative stress
Introduction
Waterpipe tobacco smoking (WP) is an ancient method of tobacco consumption rooted in the Eastern Mediterranean regions and the Indian subcontinent [1]. It has rapidly spread to western countries, especially among youth [2]. Many factors contributed to its worldwide popularity, including misperception about safety [3], socially acceptable behavior [4], and attractive flavorings of the tobacco [5].
There has been a shift of tobacco smoking as indicated by several studies showed that waterpipe smoking, and nowadays, vaping using electronic cigarettes [6], have replaced cigarette smoking as a method of tobacco smoking [7]. It is estimated that 100 million people worldwide smoke waterpipe every day [8]. Additionally, the popularity of waterpipe smoking has also increased among pregnant women [9]. Several studies showed that exposure to WTS resulted in several detrimental health effects, including respiratory [10], cardiovascular [11], renal [12], and neuronal damage and memory impairment [13]. Additionally, it has been revealed that tobacco smoking negatively affected infant sleeping pattern [14] as well as induced brain damage in breastfed child [15].
Extensive studies on human and animal suggested that physical exercise could have benefits for general health and cognitive function, especially later in life (Reveiwed in [16]). Physical exercise was also reported to improve learning ability and memory function [17]. Exercise might be voluntary as part of our lifestyle or forced during weight loss or therapeutic regimen; both types of exercise improve spatial learning and memory and this improvement parallel a reduction in the accumulation of oxidative damage [18]. The beneficial role of regular exercise is due to increase antioxidant capacity, repair enzymes activity, resistance to oxidative stress and lower oxidative damages compared to sedentary lifestyle [19]. The interaction effect of exercise and antioxidant-rich diet on the brain function has been demonstrated. This interaction maximally improve spatial learning in both male and female ApoE4 mice [20]. Additionally, evidence from meta-analysis revealed that exercise may help to improve memory performance among adult patients with mild cognitive impairment [21]. It also might improve or at least slow down the decline in cognitive performance among patients with Alzheimer's disease [22].
Recent studies showed that exercise counteracted memory impairment induced by high fat diet [23], stress [24], arsenic exposure [25], vascular dementia [26], and sleep deprivation [27]. However, the neuroprotective effect of forced swimming exercise on waterpipe-induced memory impairment was not evaluated. Herein, we studied this effect for the first time. Moreover, the effect of forced swimming exercise and waterpipe smoking exposure on the hippocampal oxidative stress biomarkers was evaluated in adult male rats.
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Animals
Adult male Wistar rats (weight 180-250 g and aged 10–12 weeks) were purchased from Animal House of Jordan University of Science and Technology. Animals were kept as six rats in a metal cage (cage size: LXWXH in cm: 55X45X25) under controlled temperature (25 ± 1 °C) with free access to water and standard rodent food. They were identified by tail labeling and maintained at 12 h dark/light cycle. All experiments were carried out during the light cycle. Wood shaving was used as bedding and replaced
The effect of WP and/or FSE on learning and memory
During the learning phase, the four animal groups were able to learn the location of the submersed platform as shown by the remarkable decrease in the numbers of errors with subsequent learning trial. There was no observed significant interaction among treatment groups (P > 0.05) in trials 1 through 12. This demonstrates that neither WP nor FSE influenced learning (Fig. 1).
During the short-term memory, and 5 h and 24 h long-term memory tests, significant differences were detected between FSE
Discussion
In this study, we evaluated the neuroprotective effect of FSE on short and long- term memory impairment induced by WP exposure in rat model. The findings of this study indicated that WP exposure impaired memory but not learning and FSE prevented WP-induced short- and long- term memory impairment as indicated by remarkable reduction in the numbers of errors during RAWM memory test done at 30 min, 5- and 24- h. Moreover, WP exposure increased hippocampal oxidative stress as indicated by increase
Funding
This work was financially supported by Deanship of Scientific Research at Jordan University of Science and Technology (grant number 73/2013).
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2021, Life SciencesCitation Excerpt :Three studies of Alzoubi et al. [31,32], and Alqudah et al. [30] investigated the effect of WPS on the oxidative stress biomarkers in hippocampus of Wistar Rats (Table 1). All three studies found that WPS decreased the levels of catalase and GPx enzymes significantly compared to the control group [30–32]. Glutathione (GSH), Oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and GSH/GSSG ratio were measured in all three studies [30–32]; however, GSH, GSSG and GSH/GSSG ratio were significantly different from the control group in Alqudah et al. [30], and only GSH and GSH/GSSG ratio were significantly different from the control group in Alzoubi et al. [32].
Swimming exercise attenuates anxiety-like behavior by reducing brain oxidative stress in type 2 diabetic mice
2021, Physiology and BehaviorCitation Excerpt :In consistent with our findings, swimming exercised rodents displayed lower oxidative markers such as MDA levels in the brain [18,33]. Alzoubi et al. reported the protective effect of swimming exercise on oxidative stress by reducing MDA and GSSG levels in the hippocampus of rats [75]. The association between increased brain oxidative stress and anxiety-like behavior was found in previous studies [16–19].
Every-other day fasting prevents memory impairment induced by high fat-diet: Role of oxidative stress
2021, Physiology and BehaviorCitation Excerpt :In this behavioral test, animals from all the categories were checked for their spatial learning and memory performance [9, 36, 37]. The RAWM protocol was based on our previous studies [38,39,40]. In brief, the RAWM is a V shape rounded stainless steel pool with six labelled arms radiating from the center of the pool, which was filled with water (temperature 24±1 C°).