Elsevier

Journal of Transport Geography

Volume 26, January 2013, Pages 139-146
Journal of Transport Geography

The impact of security on travelers across the Canada–US border

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.08.009Get rights and content

Abstract

Since September 11, 2001 numerous security measures have been implemented along the Canada–US border, including the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI). Concerns have been raised about the impact of these security measures on the movement of people across the border. This paper examines the impact of security on the number of travelers crossing the border by employing a multivariate regression analysis utilizing monthly data from January 1991 to December 2007. In addition, the impact of the WHTI is specifically examined by employing a similar multivariate regression analysis with monthly data from October 2001 to December 2011. Controlling for the effects of a number of factors, such as exchange rates and gas prices, results showed that security measures, including the WHTI, have negatively impacted the number of Canadian visitors to the US and American visitors to Canada traveling by automobile. The findings of this study will be of interest to researchers, policy makers, and a variety of stakeholders in the tourism industry in both countries.

Highlights

► Examination of the impact on the number of travelers crossing the Canada–US border. ► Two regression models were tested holding exchange rates and gas prices constant. ► Security measures since 9/11 have negatively impacted the number of travelers. ► Impact greater for American visitors to Canada than Canadian visitors to the US.

Introduction

The events of September 11, 2001, directly affected travel and tourism across the United States, Canada, and many other countries throughout the world. All trade and travel between the United States and Canada came to a standstill as the border closed for approximately 24 h and all civilian air traffic was grounded for two days (Goodrich, 2002). Recognizing the Canada–US border’s economic importance and need to keep it open and secure, the two countries worked cooperatively to produce the Smart Border Accord, signed on December 12, 2001. This accord includes a 32-point action plan that focuses on security while facilitating the flow of people and goods across the border (Government of Canada, 2001). Since then, other security measures have been implemented, such as the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which have raised even more concerns about the impact of security on the movement of people across the Canada–US border (Abelson and Wood, 2007, Alden, 2008, Alper and Hammond, 2009, Canadian Chamber of Commerce, 2009, Conference Board of Canada, 2005, Muller, 2010). While much of the research to date has focused on the impact of increased border security on trade (Bradbury, 2010, Canadian Chamber of Commerce, 2009, Globerman and Storer, 2009, Goldfarb and Robson, 2003, MacPherson et al., 2006), little attention has been paid to the impact of security measures on movement of people across the Canada–US border (Abelson and Wood, 2007, Alden, 2008, Conference Board of Canada, 2005).

Although several researchers have examined the impact of 9/11 on the tourism industry, most have either limited their focus to the US (Bonham et al., 2006, Goodrich, 2002, Gut and Jarrell, 2007) or the airline industry (Lee et al., 2005, Ready and Dobie, 2003, Rupp et al., 2005). Research has shown that tourism and demand for travel are highly susceptible to shocks such as incidents of terrorism, economic fluctuations, currency instability, natural disasters or incidents of contagious disease (Bonham et al., 2006, Knowles and Matthiessen, 2009, Ritchie et al., 2010). Such occurrences reduce people’s propensity to travel but even lesser events can also impact travel, such as the perceived ‘hassle’ of crossing the border, longer wait times at the border, the need to obtain a visa, weather issues, or even traffic congestion (Nyaupane and Andereck, 2008, Timothy, 1995, Timothy and Tosun, 2003). This study aims to investigate the impact of security measures, including the effect of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative, on the movement of travelers utilizing automobiles across the Canada–US border. Specifically, what has been the impact of the increased security procedures introduced since 9/11 on the number of people crossing the Canada–US border?

Section snippets

Borders as barriers to tourism

International borders and boundaries have been found to influence tourism in two distinct ways – one negative and the other positive (Knowles and Matthiessen, 2009, Smith, 1984, Timothy, 1995, Timothy and Tosun, 2003). Borders can act as barriers that negatively influence the flow of tourists (Knowles and Matthiessen, 2009, Timothy and Tosun, 2003). International borders delineate the sovereign boundary between two countries and are indicated physically in some manner, sometimes rather

The pattern of cross-border trips

Fig. 2 shows the number of American and Canadian cross-border travelers by automobile between 1989 (the year the Canada–US Free Trade Agreement went into effect) and 2011 (Statistics Canada, 2012). As the graph shows, more Canadians have typically traveled to the US than Americans to Canada. This pattern is particularly significant given the fact that the population of Canada is approximately a tenth of the size of the United States. As the variability in the graph indicates, the number of

Impacts of security on travelers across the Canada–US border

As mentioned previously, while there is the belief that security measures have impacted the number of travelers crossing the Canada–US border, there are also several other factors that could also explain the decline in travelers. Thus, this study examines empirically the impact of security measures put in place since September 11, 2001, on the number of people crossing the border by automobile. Specifically this study focuses on: (1) whether security procedures put in place since 9/11 at the

Discussion and conclusions

In summary, the results of this study show that various security procedures put in place since 9/11 have negatively impacted the movement of travelers across the border. Between 1991 and 2011 the number of Canadian travelers crossing the border by automobile has declined by 32.5 million travelers or by 44.3%, with the greatest decline, 51.8%, among same-day travelers (those travelers crossing and returning the same-day). The results from the regression model predicted that the WHTI resulted in

References (62)

  • B. Ascher

    Obstacles to international travel and tourism

    Journal of Travel Research

    (1984)
  • Bank of Canada, 2012a. Monthly Average Exchange Rates. Bank of Canada, Ottawa....
  • Bank of Canada, 2012b. Annual Average Exchange Rates. Bank of Canada, Ottawa....
  • Berkow, J., 2011. Canadians Still Paying more than Americans. Financial Post. Last updated 1.13 PM on 14 April 2011....
  • C. Bonham et al.

    The impact of 9/11 and other terrible global events on tourism in the United States and Hawaii

    Journal of Tourism Research

    (2006)
  • Border Policy Research Institute, 2010. WHTI, The Recession and Cross-border Travel. (Border Policy Brief). Border...
  • S.L. Bradbury et al.

    Washington–British Columbia border towns since NAFTA: communities in transition

    Current Municipal Problems

    (1998)
  • S.L. Bradbury et al.

    From NAFTA to 9/11: challenges and dilemmas facing western Canada–U.S. border towns

    Journal of Rural and Community Development

    (2009)
  • Canada Border Services Agency, 2008. NEXUS Highway and FAST Programs Evaluation Study. Ottawa: CBSA....
  • Canada Border Services Agency, 2009. About NEXUS. CBSA, Ottawa....
  • Canada Border Services Agency, 2010a. NEXUS Reaches the 400,000th Member Mark. (News Release). CBSA, Ottawa....
  • Canada Border Services Agency, 2010b. Fact Sheet: Arming of CBSA Officers. CBSA, Ottawa....
  • Canada Border Services Agency, 2012. New Personal Exemption Limits Effective June 1, 2012. (News Release). CBSA,...
  • Canadian Chamber of Commerce, 2009. Finding the Balance: Shared Border of the Future. Canadian Chamber of Commerce,...
  • Canadian Tourism Commission, 2009. Tourism Snapshot: 2009 Year-in-Review. Canadian Tourism Commission, Ottawa....
  • Conference Board of Canada, 2005. The Potential Impact of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative Passport Requirement...
  • Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 1996. Canada/United States of America Accord on Our Shared...
  • Esri, 2012. ArcGIS Online Maps and Geoservices: Basemaps. Esri, Redlands, CA....
  • S.J. Ferris

    Quantifying Non-Tariff Barriers: What Difference Did 9/11 Make to Canadian Cross-Border Shopping?

    Canadian Public Policy

    (2010)
  • Globerman, S., Storer, P., 2009. The Effects of 9/11 on Canadian–U.S. Trade: An Update through 2008. Brookings...
  • Goldfarb, D., Robson, W.B.P., 2003. Risky Business: U.S. Border Security and the Threat to Canadian Exports. C.D. Howe...
  • Cited by (20)

    • Do exchange rate volatility and income affect Australia's maritime export flows to Asia?

      2016, Transport Policy
      Citation Excerpt :

      Using country-pair data, this study attempts to fill this gap by assessing the effects of income, exchange rate, and exchange rate volatility on maritime exports in view of the changes occurred in each of its trading partner’s monetary regime since the Asian financial crisis. Numerous empirical studies have investigated the determinants of international trade (e.g., Kavoussi, 1984; Rose, 1991; Arslan and van Wijnbergen, 1993; Shirvani, 1997; Chou, 2000; Barkoulas et al., 2002; Onafowora, 2003; Bradbury, 2003; Taylor et al., 2004; Yao, 2006; Klein and Shambaugh, 2006; Lubulwa et al., 2008; Globerman and Storer, 2009; Coto-Millan et al., 2011; Chi, 2014, 2015). The majority of the previous studies have examined the impacts of income and exchange rate on the value or quantity of exports, imports, or both.

    • A comparative analysis of cross border travel influences at the port level: Pacific Highway/Douglas, B.C. - Blaine, WA and Windsor, ON - Detroit, MI

      2015, Research in Transportation Business and Management
      Citation Excerpt :

      In addition to trade, some studies have been conducted on cross border personal travel, using time series analysis to estimate the impact of 9/11. However, most have undertaken this analysis at the aggregate national level similar to Globerman and Storer (Burke, 2010; Ferris, 2010; Bradbury, 2013; Anderson et al, 2014). Also like Globerman and Storer's results, the findings of these travel studies all conclude that trips across the Canada–US border were negatively impacted by 9/11.

    • Passenger car flows across the Canada-US border: The effect of 9/11

      2014, Transport Policy
      Citation Excerpt :

      However, changes in tastes and perception or policies taken at the state, provincial or local levels may also have played roles. The results presented in this paper are broadly consistent with earlier studies (Hodges, 2007; Ferris, 2010; Bradbury, 2013) in identifying a very large effect of 9/11 on passenger vehicle crossings at the Canada–US border. In comparison to those studies, our study employs a somewhat longer time series and a simpler model specification.

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text