Dietary polyphenols as photoprotective agents against UV radiation
Introduction
Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances also known as phenols or phenolics. Common polyphenol categories include catechins, stilbenes, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, ellagitannins and anthocyanins, the natural occurrence of which in plants contribute to health benefits through diets. The main sources of dietary polyphenols include fruits, vegetables, grains, tea, essential oils, as well as their derived foods, beverages or supplements (Zhang & Tsao, 2016). Polyphenol is vital part of human diet and the approximate total intake is 1 g/day (Scalbert & Williamson, 2000). These polyphenols, particularly those from dietary sources, exhibit a wide variety of beneficial biological activities. They have been reported to have antioxidant (Rice-evans, Miller, Bolwell, Bramley, & Pridham, 1995), antimicrobial (Taguri, Tanaka, & Kouno, 2006), antiviral (Perez, 2003), antimutagenic (Lazarou, Grougnet, & Papadopoulos, 2007), anticarcinogenic (Kuroda & Hara, 1999), anti-inflammatory (Dos Santos, Almeida, Lopes, & De Souza, 2006), antiproliferative and vasodilatory actions (Matito et al., 2003, Padilla et al., 2005), after ingestion or topical application.
Experimental and epidemiologic studies have suggested that polyphenols protect the skin from the adverse effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation through multiple pathways (Afaq & Katiyar, 2011). UV radiation is classified as UVA, UVB, or UVC according to the wavelength. Most UVC can be absorbed by the ozone layer before reaching the earth surface. However, both UVA and UVB are able to penetrate the atmosphere and cause cumulative injury to the skin. The skin is the largest organ of human as an effective barrier. Lots of people love basking in the sun, but UV radiation in the sunlight potentially causes damages to the skin (e.g. sunburn, tanning) and even leads to DNA damage. These conditions adversely affect self-esteem and psychosocial well-being. In addition, chronic exposure to solar UV radiation is a major etiologic risk factor of non-melanoma skin cancers (Afaq & Katiyar, 2011).
Unlike melanoma, a malignant tumor of melanocyte, non-melanoma skin cancer is a kind of tumor arising from keratinocytes. These keratinocytes are located in the basal layer of the epidermis and capable of division. Compared with fully differentiated cells, the keratinocytes are more likely to transform into tumor. The DNA of keratinocytes is a main target of UV radiation to the skin. There are two major classes of mutagenic DNA lesions induced by UVA and UVB radiation: the formation of cyclobutane-primidine dimers (CPDs) with thymine dimers (T<>T) as the major subset, and the formation of 6–4 photoproducts (6–4 PPs) (Figs. 1 and 2) (Otoshi et al., 2000). CPDs are the most abundant lesions, even more abundant than oxidative lesions, by UV radiation in cultured cells or skin (Douki et al., 2003, Mouret et al., 2006, You et al., 2001). Both UVA and UVB contribute to the formation of CPDs. As a major contributor to UV mutatagenesis, CPDs were previously considered as “UVB signature mutations” in skin cancers, but nowadays, there is a general consensus that CPDs represents the main class of UVA photoproducts in human skin. This is because UVB usually causes CPDs on the surface of epidermal, while UVA-induced CPDs play a predominant role in the basal layer (Tewari, Sarkany, & Young, 2012). Only UVB is able to generate 6–4 PPs (Tewari et al., 2012). 6–4 PPs are the precursors of the valence Dewar isomers, which may also present serious mutagenic and potentially lethal effects (Mitchell and Nairn, 1989, Pfeifer et al., 1991). As 6–4 PPs are excised from the mammalian genome rapidly, the chance that 6–4 PPs could induce mutation is much lower than that of CPDs (Ikehata & Ono, 2011).
UVA not only induces CPDs, but also causes singlet oxygen photosensitization-induced DNA photolesions (Pfeifer, You, & Besaratinia, 2005). 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2-deoxyguanosine (8-oxoG) is identified as a ubiquitous biomarker of DNA oxidation in human skin (Cadet et al., 2009, Mouret et al., 2006). It has been demonstrated that in the human fibroblast model, the inducing spectra for 8-oxoG formation belong to UVA (above 334 nm) and near visible radiations, indicating that it is UVA 1 subdomain over UVA 2 that contributes to this oxidative DNA base damage (Kvam & Tyrrell, 1997). The formation of 8-oxoG involves of a predominant reaction mediated by singlet molecular oxygen (1O2) (Cadet et al., 2009). Another oxidation reaction that may contribute to the formation of 8-oxoG has been shown to involve highly reactive hydroxyl radical (̇OH) generated as a result of Fenton reaction. In addition, both singlet molecular oxygen and highly reactive hydroxyl radical can also lead to the formation of other oxidized pyrimidine bases and DNA strand breaks in UVA-irradiated cells.
It has been well understood that UV-induced DNA photolesions accumulate in the epidermis and generate UV-induced mutations if the cells divide before repairing the DNA damage. Moreover, UV-induced CPDs and 8-oxodG photolesions increase with the epidermal depth, with the highest concentration in the basal layers (Halliday & Cadet, 2012). Therefore, the basal layer of epidermis is most sensitive to UV irradiation. Preventing the formation of mutations or accelerating the repair of photo damages is of great importance for skin health.
Section snippets
Photoprotection and DNA repair
There are many factors that influence the progress from mutation to skin cancer, such as the depth-dependent exposure to the UV radiation, cell division rate, transformation susceptibility, cellular defense systems, and the most important DNA repair capacity. To minimize the number of heritable mutations, organisms have developed efficient DNA repair mechanisms to counteract the UV radiation induced DNA lesions (Sinha & Häder, 2002). Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a particularly important
Dietary polyphenols and their skin photoprotection mechanism
Utilization of photoprotective chemicals is one crucial approach to protect the skin from the harmful effect of UV irradiation. Currently, there is a world-wide trend to use natural materials to protect the skin from harmful effects of UV irradiation. Dietary polyphenols are one of the most important groups of natural antioxidants and chemopreventive agents found in human diets (Zhang & Tsao, 2016). Green tea polyphenols are the first well studied groups of polyphenols for the prevention of
Conclusion
In a summary, previous studies suggested that the photoprotective effects and anti-photocarcinogenic activity of polyphenols are associated with the inhibition of UV-induced ROS, DNA damage, as well as inflammatory mediators in a synergistic way. Plant polyphenols, whether they were administered in the drinking water, as dietary supplements, or applied topically, all have great potential for the prevention of UV-induced skin photo-damage and skin cancer.
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