ReviewPolar stratospheric cloud microphysics and chemistry
Section snippets
Historical overview
The first polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) observed were the beautiful nacreous, or mother-of-pearl, clouds which are quite commonly visible above the mountains of Scandinavia and the Antarctic peninsula, but are also occasionally seen in the middle latitudes (Stanford and Davis, 1974; simply type “nacreous cloud” into an internet search engine for recent images). For example, as pointed out to us by an anonymous reviewer, PSCs were recorded in 1901 by the Danish painter Jorgensen. By the
Fieldwork instrumentation
The data used for PSC studies range from retrieved atmospheric composition over synoptic scales by satellite-mounted instruments to the in-situ measurement of particle compositions and gas-phase mixing ratios by balloon and aircraft mounted instruments. Most aspects of the stratosphere, from air temperature and the mixing ratios of individual components, to the size, number, and composition of aerosol particles, can be studied. However, it is not always possible to measure all the atmospheric
Particle compositions
Since the discovery of PSCs, a number of different types of particles have been postulated as being important in the formation and lifecycles of these aerosols. Observations of PSCs have been split into Types Ia, Ib, and II based on classifications of lidar measurements (Poole and McCormick, 1988, Toon et al., 1990). However, these divisions are based on the optical parameters of the aerosols, which, while providing an idea of typical shapes and sizes of particles, contain very little
The effects of PSCs
Soon after the discovery of the ozone hole PSCs were found to be important both for aiding the release of active chlorine species as well as extending the lifetimes of these species by removing (Toon et al., 1986, Solomon et al., 1986, Solomon, 1990, Solomon, 1999).
Below we review how the microphysical properties of the PSCs determine the magnitude and extent of these effects, and how the microphysical properties are, in turn, dependent on the climate of the polar vortex. The Antarctic
Summary
To summarise: (1) in situ instrumentation has improved to the point where we can measure the amounts of the major constituents of the condensed phase and their ratios—allowing for the positive identification of STS and NAT particles in the Arctic stratosphere. (2) Satellite instruments can now be used to identify the category of PSCs as well as their synoptic extent—improving the temporal and spatial coverage of observations. (3) The major types of PSC particles have been identified and
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Comparison between ACE and CALIPSO observations of Antarctic polar stratospheric clouds
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2023, Planetary and Space ScienceInfrared transmittance spectra of polar stratospheric clouds
2023, Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative TransferCitation Excerpt :Mixtures of PSC types are common, both internal (together in a particle) and external (particles mixed together) are possible [9]. The evidence for this picture is based on extensive laboratory measurements, ground-based and satellite lidar observations, visible light scattering, infrared emission spectroscopy, thermodynamic modeling, in situ mass spectrometry, to name some of the methods that have been used to study PSCs [8–9,11–13]. Largely missing from this list of techniques is the direct measurement of characteristic infrared transmittance spectra of PSCs in the stratosphere from orbit as provided by the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment, ACE [14].
Atlas of ACE spectra of clouds and aerosols
2022, Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative TransferCitation Excerpt :PSCs are therefore responsible for the Antarctic ozone hole and Arctic ozone declines that occur in the springtime. PSCs begin to form when the stratospheric temperature drops to about 195 K: nitric acid forms solid nitric acid trihydrate (NAT, HNO3·3H2O), and a supercooled ternary solution (STS) of nitric acid and sulfuric acid in water also forms [36]. At about 188 K, water vapor freezes to form ice.
Reasons for Low Fraction of Arctic Stratospheric Cloud in 2014/2015 Winter
2023, Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres