Factors affecting compliance with residential standards in the city of Old Salt, Jordan

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to examine the factors which impact on the extent to which urban housing complies with residential standards in the city of Old Salt based in Jordan. The research found that the level of compliance with residential standards is quite low and can vary from one standard to another and from one house to another due to differences in the socio-economic characteristics among people. The findings of multiple regression analysis reveal that there is a good level of public awareness of residential standards, but this does not result in complete compliance with residential standards. Factors, such as household income per month, household size, finance facilities, municipal administration culture, monitoring, enforcement and the uncertainty of residential standards have a significant impact on the extent of compliance with planning standards. Suggestions for improved urban planning practices which address these issues are summarised in the paper and include reassessed current residential standards through comprehensive legal frameworks, linking residential standards with urban design approaches, changing planning practices, developing information systems to produce effective monitoring systems of construction processes and enforcement mechanisms, the development of local staff including planners, designers and environmental engineers, supported partnerships between private and public sectors, and the use of participatory planning and citizen involvement.

Introduction

The study of unauthorised housing falls within many different disciplines; planners (Kamete, 2006, Kombe, 2005, Pugh, 2000, Rakodi, 2001, Rakodi, 2003, Rakodi, 2006, Sliuzas, 2004, Zegarac, 1999), architects (Fekade, 2000, Jie, 1997, Shakur and Madden, 1991, Tipple, 2000, Turner, 1972, Winayanti and Lang, 2004), lawmakers (Fernandes & Varley, 1998), geographers (Gough, 1996, Gough and Kellett, 2001, Main and Williams, 1994, O'Hare et al., 1998) and economists (e.g. Pillay & Naude, 2005) have all addressed the issue of unauthorised housing and its relationship with urban planning. A range of academic studies from different disciplines has resulted in different emphases and influences and various labels including unauthorised, uncontrolled, unplanned, unorganised, informal or illegal urban housing have been applied to describe housing outside normal regulations. All these labels share one characteristic – the non-compliance with planning standards and regulations. Compliance with planning standards can range from high (complete) compliance to medium, low and non-compliance (Arimah & Adeagbo, 2000). This research deals with unauthorised urban housing based on its level of compliance with residential standards, rather than taking unauthorised housing as a general concept.

A review of the unauthorised housing and urban planning literature emphasised the importance of compliance with planning standards as a fundamental element in housing development. Compliance with planning standards also reflects the ability of planning authorities in controlling and guiding the whole urban development process. Planning authorities are concerned with using planning standards to ensure proper housing conditions and infrastructure. Despite the importance of planning standards to planning authorities and residents, this topic has been relatively less developed or investigated in the unauthorised housing literature. This has been criticised in the works of Rakodi (2001) and Fernandes and Varley (1998).

Until recently, the literature on unauthorised housing can be divided into two main areas: academic studies and technical studies (Walker, 2001). Academic studies emphasised two dimensions: the social and environmental cost resulting from housing without compliance with planning standards (e.g. Kamete, 2006); the use of alternative or intermediate technology to reduce the cost of building materials with respect to unauthorised housing (e.g. Gough, 1996). The technical studies are related to the structural issues and the technical manuals produced by building components producers, mostly cement manufacturers. These manuals generally do not differ greatly from the academic works aforementioned. Walker (2001: 5) states “They identify problems of design and construction in self-built housing, and propose solutions to these, which generally rely upon proper training of the people involved. The difference lies in the nature of the solutions proposed, which tend to be more conventional than the other proposals, and to involve the use of building materials produced by the company in question.”

This has led urban planning and unauthorised housing researchers (e.g. Fekade, 2000, Kironde, 2006, Kombe, 2005, Post, 1996, Rakodi, 2001, Rakodi, 2006, Tipple, 2000, Walker, 2001) to criticise the excessive concentration on the social and environmental costs of unauthorised housing, without taking into account the importance of factors affecting compliance with planning standards including socio-economic motives, urban management practices and the uncertainty of planning standards. The link between these vital issues is a critical one in many developing countries and most commentators support the need for a clear role for improving the effectiveness of planning and management in situations of poverty. This emphasis is in keeping with the works of Arimah and Adeagbo, 2000, Fernandes and Varley, 1998, Jie, 1997, Kironde, 2006, Post, 1996, Rakodi, 2001, Rakodi, 2003, Sliuzas, 2004, UNCHS, 1999 and Zegarac (1999), who all argue that understanding unauthorised housing requires addressing three sets of factors including socio-economic motives; urban management practices; the uncertainty of planning standards, in order to be able to formulate planning interventions and the sustainable management of unauthorised housing.

This paper looks at how understanding three vital issues can improve the knowledge and understanding of unauthorised housing in order to produce effective planning strategies. In addition this research will enhance the ability of the planning authorities in developing countries, especially in Jordan, to benefit from empirical findings and it, therefore, has the potential to influence government policy on addressing unauthorised urban development.

Even though there has been a considerable number of studies relating to unauthorised housing, several factors provoked further research in this area. First, there is a need for more investigation to address the role of socio-economic factors, management practices and the uncertainty of planning standards in illegal housing (Rakodi, 2001). Second, many of the unauthorised urban housing studies have tended to be concerned with theoretical arguments. Third, very little attention has been given to unauthorised urban housing research in Jordan. It is therefore appropriate to investigate the application of this approach within the Jordanian environment. Fourth, only a few empirical studies have investigated unauthorised housing using planning standards, even though researchers (e.g. Few et al., 2004, Rakodi, 2001, Tipple, 2000) have recommended conducting further unauthorised housing research.

Over the last three decades, Jordan has experienced an accelerated growth of urbanisation. In 1970s, the urbanisation rate was 65% (Department of Statistics, 1975). At present, over 80% of the population live in urban areas (Department of Statistics, 2005). The main drives of rapid urbanisation are the surge of Palestinian refugees into Jordan and the immigration from rural into urban areas. This urbanisation rate with a back drop of poverty, low incomes, limited economic capabilities and lack of development control has resulted in various spatial and environmental problems. These include increased illegal housing in urban areas which do not fully comply with residential standards, traffic congestion, residential overcrowding, air and water pollution (Meaton & Alnsour, 2006).

It is clear that Jordan needs effective urban planning instruments but these have to be based on available resources and should reflect the local socio-spatial context.

In the past Jordanian building standards¹ were developed using input from foreign consultants from the UK and local experts and professionals (Zagha, 2003). This resulted in building standards being based largely on engineering and did not take into account economic problems and environmental challenges. For example, a number of issues related to urban housing design such as, windows, tiling and the space required for each house were not considered. The resulting freedom in the design of houses has resulted in, amongst other things, increased energy consumption and environmental problems, such as air pollution (Meaton & Alnsour, 2006).