Nonmetric multidimensional scaling and adverse effects on aquatic biota of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments: A case study of a typical aquaculture wetland, China
Introduction
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the extremely globally important categories of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Jones and de Voogt, 1999; Malaj et al., 2014). These pollutants are mainly formed by incomplete combustion of energy sources, involving fossil fuels and biomass, and are subsequently emitted into the environment (Keyte et al., 2013). The PAH compounds enter aquatic and terrestrial systems through various pathways (e.g., atmospheric deposition, domestic and industrial wastewater) (Khan et al., 2008; Gu et al., 2018a). According to previous studies, they are poisonous for aquatic and terrestrial organisms at concentrations exceeding the threshold levels (Engraff et al., 2011; USEPA, 2017). Some PAHs have been accumulated over decades because of their persistent, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic properties (Brette et al., 2014). Although PAHs have been widely monitored in various environments (Ylitalo et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012; Mishra et al., 2016; Gu et al., 2018a; Zheng et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2018a), studies on PAHs in riverine sediments in aquaculture wetlands remain scarce.
Aquaculture wetlands are distributed widely in China's riverine, estuarine, and coastal areas and serve as breeding and nursing sites and shelter for migratory and endemic species (Ottinger et al., 2016; Gui et al., 2018). Riverine, estuarine, and coastal ecosystems are typically easily affected by anthropogenic activities (Halpern et al., 2008; Crook et al., 2015; Janse et al., 2015). In China, pond aquaculture takes the prevailing role in freshwater aquaculture in terms of its production and area (Gui et al., 2018). The rapid economic growth in China since 1978 has greatly accelerated the large-scale exploitation of river and estuarine regions, resulting in increased river and estuarine pollution (Han et al., 2016). Pollutants such as persistent compounds, PAHs, nutrients, surfactants, and oils have been released into rivers and estuaries, causing serious adverse ecological effects (Kleindienst et al., 2015; Jardak et al., 2016; Qian et al., 2016; Borges et al., 2019).
Guangdong Province is the leading aquaculture producer in China (Gui et al., 2018; NBSC, 2018). The Rongjiang River and its estuary (RJE), located on a massive aquaculture wetland in Chaoshan metropolis, is the second largest river system in eastern Guangdong Province; the river flows from northwest to southeast through the main urban areas of Jieyang and Shantou and finally discharges into the South China Sea (Li et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016). This aquaculture wetland mainly consists of pond aquaculture and includes the largest-volume freshwater-aquaculture producer. Undoubtedly, aquaculture has strongly contributed to local economic growth; however, it has also resulted in the rapid deterioration of aquatic ecosystems in recent years. Unprecedented rates of economic development and urbanization on both banks of this river in recent decades have been coupled with increasing environmental pollution (e.g., industrial pollution, agricultural activities, and domestic sewage) (Wu and Zhao, 2005; Fang, 2012; Gu et al., 2018b). The estuarine environment of this river has also been impacted by the world's largest electronic waste site (Guiyu Town) through water channels linking the RJE and the Lianjian River (Fig. 1).
To our knowledge, there is no information on PAH concentrations present in a typical aquaculture wetland. Therefore, the present study aimed to (1) determine PAH contents in the river sediments of aquaculture wetlands in the Chaoshan metropolis, (2) to reveal PAH quantification and composition, and to (3) identify potential PAH sources and to evaluate the potential ecological risks.
Section snippets
Study area and sampling
Rongjiang River, 175 km long, has a watershed area of 4408 km2 and an annual runoff volume of 31.1 million m3 (Gu et al., 2018b). This river has retained its natural characteristics because there are no dams in its trunk stream (Wang et al., 2016). The area of pond aquaculture covers approximately 212.97 km2 in a segment of the river between the cities of Jieyang and Shantou (Fig. 1; Gu et al., 2018b). According to our investigation, the predominant cultured species are bass (Lateolabrax
PAH concentrations
The concentrations of the 16 PAHs and the concentrations of seven carcinogenic PAHs (Σ7cPAHs) in surface sediments of RJE are given in Table 2. Spatial distributions of Σ16PAHs and Σ7cPAHs in sediments are provided in Fig. 2A. The Σ16PAHs concentrations varied greatly by sampling site, ranging from 46.0 to 1665.2 ng/g, with a mean of 2,46.4 ng/g. The Σ7cPAH concentrations ranged from 7.5 to 962.6 ng/g, with a mean of 108.4 ng/g, contributing between 16.3 and 57.8% of Σ16PAHs (mean relative
Conclusions
In this paper, PAH quantification, composition, sources and ecological risks were studied in surface sediments of RJE. The Σ16PAH contents were in the range of 46.0–1665.2 ng/g. The Σ16PAH levels studied in sediments from RJE were lower than those reported for other rivers and estuaries worldwide. The Σ7cPAH concentrations varied from 7.5 to 962.6 ng/g, with FL being the most common component. Five-ring PAHs were the most abundant ones (mean 28.0%), predominated by FL, BbFA and BaP.
Traditional
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Central Public-Interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund, South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, CAFS (2018ZD01). We also gratefully acknowledge Prof. Solomon. K. for providing the spreadsheets (Microsoft Excel and QuatroPro) to calculate the JCP ecological risk. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on the manuscript.
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