Application of geophysical methods in the evaluation of anthropogenic transformation of the ground: A case study of the Warsaw environs, Poland
Introduction
An accurate evaluation of the spatial extent and the depth of anthropogenic soil (also called man-made soil) is important for the design of linear structures, such as the S8 expressway (Marki bypass), in a manner that is safe for people and the environment. Engineering geological investigations are the basis for creating spatial models of geological settings and the geotechnical conditions of the ground, with drilling providing data for point locations. The probability of spatial model compatibility with actual geological engineering and the geotechnical conditions of the ground is dependent on the complexity of the ground conditions and the extent to which the designed research accurately evaluates the geological setting. Analysis of the ground by geological engineering integrated with geophysical surveys is recommended (e.g., Dahlin et al., 1994, Kowalczyk and Mieszkowski, 2011, Maślakowski et al., 2014). The use of geophysical techniques based on the contrast of physical properties enables a more precise definition of the subsurface conditions between drill holes. One of the geophysical methods used most often while investigating the ground surrounding roads and highways is electrical resistivity imaging (ERI), which is also called electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). It is used mainly for identifying complex geological conditions (Ganerød et al., 2006, Maślakowski et al., 2014, Ngan-Tillard et al., 2010, Osinowo et al., 2011, Wisén et al., 2008) and karst cavities (Batayneh and Al-Zoubi, 2000, Gómez-Ortiz and Martín-Crespo, 2012, Lambert et al., 2013, Zhou et al., 2002). During ground evaluation, it is also important to determine the hydrogeological conditions. ERI is also applied to hydrogeological studies (e.g., Binley et al., 2002, Cassiani et al., 2006, Ercoli et al., 2012, Khaki et al., 2016, Mastrocicco et al., 2010) due to the significant impact of water content on resistivity values.
ERI is often combined with ground penetrating radar (GPR) which, due to its high resolution, can provide detailed data on the geometry of individual layers (Aktürk and Doyuran, 2015, Gómez-Ortiz and Martín-Crespo, 2012). The effectiveness of these methods depends on the presence of a contrast between the electrical properties in the ground. Both geophysical methods are dependent on electrical conductivity which is a parameter measured by ERI and which strongly affects the signal propagation in the case of GPR. Media with high conductivity (i.e., low electrical resistivity), like clays, limit the effectiveness of GPR because of signal attenuation. Resistivity values obtained through electrical resistivity surveys reflect the generalized lithological variability but do not allow for the unequivocal identification of soil types found in the ground. This requires drilling that provides detailed knowledge of the ground conditions. Geological data are also needed for the unambiguous interpretation of the GPR results, providing information about the thickness of layers, their internal structure, and continuity.
The goal of this study was to define the thickness of the anthropogenic soils filling excavations in a post-mining region, to reconstruct the relief of the bottom of the excavations after the exploitation of varved clays, and to estimate the range of anthropogenic transformations. The accurate identification of the space and, in particular, the depth of the anthropogenic soil occurrence is crucial for the design of the S8 expressway at the Marki bypass (Fig. 1) in terms of ensuring safety during construction and subsequent use. It also has a great importance for the economics of the expressway construction, determining the need to replace the soils or the need to use appropriate reinforcement for the construction of the road. This is a research problem relevant to many investments, including linear investments such as roads, railroads, airstrips and any subsurface pipelines carried out in anthropogenically transformed areas. Identifying the areas so strongly transformed by human activity only through drilling, which gives point information for the engineering geological conditions, seems to be insufficiently precise and often unreliable. During the construction phase, many unexpected regulatory changes may arise in contrast to the construction design. Therefore, to identify the subsurface ground structure, geophysical measurements were performed, giving a quasi-continuous imaging through ERI and GPR. The study also aimed at determining the usefulness of these geophysical methods in specifying the extent of the occurrence of anthropogenic soils consisting of municipal and industrial waste, characterized by considerable variability in their physical parameters.
Section snippets
Background
The research was conducted in areas strongly transformed by human activity in the region of Marki, near Warsaw, Poland. It is a former mining area associated with the opencast mining of varved clays for the building ceramics industry. The exploitation of raw materials dates back to the second half of the eighteenth century and continues to the present. Workings usually reached several meters below the ground surface and were used to store of all kinds of waste. The most intense period of
Description of methods
An electrical resistivity survey is characterized by high efficiency in prospecting because electrical resistivity is a parameter that perfectly reflects the diversity of a geological medium in terms of lithology (if the range of conductivity of water filling the pore space is narrow) and hydrogeology within a simple geological structure (Białostocki and Farbisz, 2007, Farbisz et al., 2010, Palacky, 1987, Saleh and Samsudin, 2013). Electrical resistivity is the medium's attribute and depends on
Discussion
In studies of areas with complex geological settings, it is recommended to apply a multidisciplinary approach using geophysical methods (Zini et al., 2015). However, the correct interpretation of geophysical surveys when evaluating groundwater and soil conditions requires the knowledge and understanding of physical laws on which the particular methods are based and also geological knowledge. In addition to general knowledge about the study area, detailed knowledge of the soils and/or rocks,
Conclusion
The reconstruction of the geological setting of the area based on ERI and GPR measurements correlates well with the point information from nearby drill holes. Therefore, the geophysical surveys obtained a more detailed image of the geological setting of the Marki surroundings by extending drilling data and by indicating a deeper geological setting.
This research confirmed the efficiency of the electrical resistivity imaging method to determine the bottom of the anthropogenic deposits. The
Acknowledgements
The research was financed by DSM 105528, granted for research and associated activities, for the development of young scientists and doctoral students, entitled “GPR identification of the grounds with different electrical properties – the continuation”.
Terrameter LS apparatus, produced by Swedish company ABEM, was purchased as a part of the Regional Operational Program project entitled: “Modernization and equipment of the laboratories of the Faculty of Geology, University of Warsaw, to conduct
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