Learning in Knowledge Communities:: Managing Technology and Context
Introduction
The importance of knowledge in organizations has received much emphasis over the last decade following pioneering work in the early 1990s (e.g. Nonaka, 1994). However, unlike some management initiatives that soon become unfashionable, the knowledge theme has persisted until the present time with no decrease in interest. Indeed, the literature on the topic continues to develop, with increasing recognition of the role of communities in knowledge sharing (Wenger and Snyder, 2000). Empirical evidence shows that these communities are formed within organizations as would be expected, but also between people in different organizations, coming together across boundaries to learn through sharing knowledge on particular topics (Anand et al., 2002), or to collaborate collectively on the development of artefacts such as software (Markus et al., 2000).
An influential body of work focuses on learning and knowledge sharing in communities of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991, Wenger, 1998). We will, however, use the more general term ‘knowledge communities’ in this article, since we are concerned with learning in communities which are both voluntary in terms of participation, and those with a more managed membership (Storck and Hill, 2000). We are also concerned with learning through the sharing of knowledge between communities, in what has been called the constellation of communities which exist in organizations (Wenger, 1998, Ward, 2002).
Writers on the subject of knowledge sharing have often noted the importance of a supportive context, for example in terms of a collaborative culture and appropriate incentives for sharing (Davenport et al., 1998). It has also been emphasized that this context cannot be managed in some simple top-down way, but that learning in communities needs to be cultivated through encouragement and facilitation, for example in allowing new ideas to develop and circulate within and between communities (Brown and Duguid, 2000). In addition to context, most writers on knowledge communities see a key role for information and communication technologies (McDermott, 1999, Walsham, 2001). However, this role is normally not spelt out in any detail. In this article, we go into specifics on the role of technology in supporting knowledge communities, and we emphasize the need for the management of both technology and context in order to provide effective support for learning and knowledge sharing.
For instance, we may all be aware of technologies such as e-mail, groupware, e-learning systems and teleconferencing, and they clearly have a potentially valuable role in supporting knowledge communities. However, we also know that there are constraints to the usefulness of these technologies. For example, work on virtual teams has shown that periodic face-to-face contact can be necessary to develop and reinforce trust relationships between team members (Maznevski and Chudoba, 2000). The main message of this article is that information and communication technologies (ICT), whilst providing a foundational infrastructure and environment to support learning, may not, by themselves, be sufficient to stimulate effective learning in knowledge communities. Softer issues such as motivation and the learning context are crucial in forming a supportive ‘climate’ for knowledge sharing. However, if the climate is good, then technology has a central part to play in providing the media and infrastructure for learning in and between knowledge communities.
In what follows, we develop these arguments using examples, firstly, of where ICT have provided highly effective support for learning in knowledge communities. Secondly, we describe examples of where ICT learning support has been less effective. Drawing from both sets of empirical examples,1 we derive some key characteristics of effective knowledge communities, and then some management lessons as to how to promote, support and manage such communities.
Although a key theme of our article concerns ICT use in knowledge communities, we want to emphasize that our messages are aimed at all managers and their staff. The role of ICT in supporting effective learning is not something that can be left to technologists or senior managers, although both these groups have a major part to play. It is something that should concern everyone engaged with organizational life. We are all members of different knowledge communities, and we all need to think carefully about how to make these communities effective, including an analysis of the role of ICT. We aim in what follows to provide some examples and concepts to help managers to think this through in their own contexts.
Section snippets
ICT Support for Learning in Knowledge Communities
We provide five areas in this section of effective ICT support for learning in knowledge communities. For each area, we discuss the ICT application, the focus of the support for learning, important contextual elements that mediate the community interaction, and we provide a case example. Table 1 summarizes the material in this section.
Potential Disjoints in ICT Learning Support
We move now to some general areas where disjoints can occur when trying to use ICT to support learning in knowledge communities. These relate to situations where the combination of features of the technology and the context do not combine together in a way which best supports effective learning. We identify five such areas, and we provide a description of the problems that can occur, and a case example for each. Table 2 summarizes the material in this section.
Key Characteristics of an Effective Knowledge Community
We can draw from the above experiences, both positive and negative, to identify key characteristics of an effective knowledge community, and the ways in which ICT can contribute. Our examples show that a supportive context and culture for learning and knowledge sharing is a necessary condition for the flourishing of knowledge communities, and ways to achieve this are not technology-related. If a supportive context is there however, integrated ICT development and use can be vital to effective
Messages for Management
A key message from this article is that managers need to be aware of what ICT can and cannot achieve with respect to effective learning in knowledge communities. The generation and maintenance of a supportive context is not primarily a technological issue. Employee perceptions of freedom to learn and the appropriateness of incentives, or their willingness to share knowledge with others inside and outside of the organization, reflect the quality of the management of the enterprise as a whole. An
MICHAEL BARRETT, Judge Institute of Management Studies, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB1 1AG, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Michael Barrett is a Faculty Member in Information Systems and E-business at the Judge Institute of Management Studies, where he also gained his Ph.D. His current research focuses on the adoption and use of information and communication technologies in the context of globalisation and consequences for the nature of work.
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MICHAEL BARRETT, Judge Institute of Management Studies, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB1 1AG, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Michael Barrett is a Faculty Member in Information Systems and E-business at the Judge Institute of Management Studies, where he also gained his Ph.D. His current research focuses on the adoption and use of information and communication technologies in the context of globalisation and consequences for the nature of work.
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GAMILA SHOIB, Management School, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
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