Infant music perception: Domain-general or domain-specific mechanisms?
Introduction
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the biological basis of music (Wallin et al., 2000, Zatorre and Peretz, 2001) and the possibility of music-specific processing skills (Hauser and McDermott, 2003, Miller, 2000, Peretz and Coltheart, 2003). Some scholars posit “core mechanisms” that enable humans, regardless of musical training, to carry a tune, move in time to music, and respond emotionally to music. Peretz and Coltheart (2003) describe these core mechanisms as a system of modules, each of which is dedicated to the analysis or processing of different aspects of music such as melodic contour, intervals, and rhythm. Other scholars contend that a music faculty evolved through natural or sexual selection (Dissanayake, 2000, Hauser and McDermott, 2003, Miller, 2000). They suggest that music-related skills may have enhanced reproductive fitness in ancestral times by strengthening interpersonal relations or group solidarity.
Biological or modular conceptions of music processing stand in sharp contrast to notions of music as frivolous, its structures governed largely by cultural and economic circumstances (Nettl, 1983, Pinker, 1997) rather than by universal processing dispositions or constraints (Trehub, 2000, Trehub, 2003a). In a now infamous passage, Pinker (1997) characterizes music as “auditory cheesecake”, with competence in the musical realm dependent on systematic training. He proposes that music evolved as a by-product of other adaptations, without providing unique functional advantages. In the case of language, however, he posits a dedicated neural organ, innate grammatical components, and developing linguistic abilities that unfold naturally without any training (Pinker, 1999).
Although explicit knowledge of music and some kinds of performance may require training, intuitive knowledge of the structural and stylistic features of music results from mere exposure (Smith et al., 1994, Tillmann et al., 2000). For example, adults typically detect sour notes in familiar musical passages (Drayna, Manichaikul, de Lange, Snieder, & Spector, 2001), and they do so even in unfamiliar passages that conform to the conventions of their musical culture (Cuddy et al., 1981, Trainor and Trehub, 1992). They recognize and produce a sizable repertoire of popular and traditional songs, and they can tap out musical rhythms (Snyder & Krumhansl, 2001). Moreover, mothers around the world sing to their infants in the course of providing care (Trehub & Trainor, 1998), and the songs they sing have striking cross-cultural similarities (Trehub et al., 1993, Unyk et al., 1992). In short, musically untrained adults’ understanding of musical structure is comparable to that of musical experts (Bigand, 2003).
Proponents of modular accounts of language bolster their case by means of dissociations between various linguistic skills (Ullman et al., 1997) and between linguistic and general cognitive skills (Gopnik, 1997, Pinker, 1999). There are reasons to question the specificity of syndromes such as specific language impairment (Joanisse and Seidenberg, 1998, Norbury et al., 2002) and Williams syndrome (Bellugi, Bihrle, Neville, Doherty, & Hernigan, 1989). Deficits have been identified in the “spared” domain for both syndromes, although such deficits are less severe than those in the affected domain (Karmiloff-Smith, Brown, Grice, & Paterson, 2003).
Proponents of modular accounts of music (Peretz & Coltheart, 2003) point to music processing deficits in the context of intact speech processing (Peretz & Hyde, 2003) and speech processing deficits in the context of spared music processing (Hébert, Racette, Gagnon, & Peretz, 2003). Whether the music processing deficit is secondary to neurological damage (Peretz et al., 1994) or primary (no identifiable damage) (Peretz et al., 2002), the presumed underlying problem involves basic pitch processing (Peretz et al., 2002). Such pitch processing difficulties may well have implications for aspects of speech processing such as the differentiation of voices and prosodic variations. In fact, voice recognition problems have been noted in some cases of amusia (Patel et al., 2005, Peretz et al., 1994).
There is a rich tradition in cognitive science – cognitive neuropsychology, in particular – of interpreting double dissociations (e.g., disordered music processing with spared speech processing, and disordered speech processing with spared music processing) in terms of differentiated mental functions, but there is considerable controversy about the utility of such inferences (Dunn and Kirsner, 2003, Juola and Plunkett, 2000). In principle, comparable (intact) performance in one domain could arise from different processing mechanisms (Deruelle, Mancini, Livet, Casse-Perrot, & de Schonen, 1999). Moreover, patterns of relative strength and weakness may differ dramatically at different phases of life, especially in developmental disorders such as Down syndrome, Williams syndrome, or specific language impairment (Karmiloff-Smith et al., 2003).
A modular account of music processing implies some degree of domain-specific processing and innateness. For Peretz and her associates, adult–infant parallels in music perception reflect innate, domain-specific skills. Alternatively, these parallels could result from perceptual skills that are not exclusive to music or to our species. In effect, modular conceptions invoke a music-specific mode of processing that has much in common with the “special” or linguistic mode of processing that flourished in the 1960s and 1970s (e.g., Liberman, Cooper, Shankweiler, & Studdert-Kennedy, 1967). At that time, 1-month-old infants’ categorical perception of stop consonants (Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk, & Vigorito, 1971) was interpreted as confirmation that phoneme perception was unlearned, species-specific, and speech-specific. Subsequent findings of categorical perception by chinchillas (Kuhl & Miller, 1975), monkeys (Waters & Wilson, 1976), budgerigars (Dooling, Okanoya, & Brown, 1989), quail (Kluender, 1991), and crickets (Wyttenbach, May, & Hoy, 1996) sparked renewed interest in species-general or auditory accounts of phoneme perception. Thus, it is prudent to remain cautious about music-specific modes of processing until more general accounts have been ruled out. Accordingly, we consider the available literature on infants’ perception of pitch and temporal patterns, with comparative perspectives presented, as available.
Section snippets
Pitch contour
Relational pitch processing is central to the perception and appreciation of music. A tune is defined by its pitch relations, without regard to the specific pitch levels of its component tones. For example, adults recognize a familiar tune at any pitch level within the musical range. Infants seem to do likewise. After limited exposure to a melody – as few as three repetitions in some cases – 5- to 10-month-olds treat transpositions of that melody (i.e., alteration of component pitches but pitch
Temporal pattern processing
Because music unfolds over time, as speech does, its processing necessarily depends on adequate temporal abilities. Listeners must segment the input into meaningful chunks or units, detect relations among those units, and anticipate future events. Three aspects of temporal organization are fundamental to the perception of music: grouping, rhythm, and meter. Grouping refers to the perception of boundaries between groups and subgroups of elements in an unfolding musical sequence. Rhythm refers to
Conclusion
Infants have a range of pattern processing abilities that enable them to perceive aspects of music in an adult-like manner. Despite adult–infant differences in pitch (Olsho, Koch, & Halpin, 1987) and temporal (Trehub et al., 1995, Werner et al., 1992) resolution, there are striking parallels in the perception of pitch relations, consonance and dissonance, temporal grouping, rhythm, and meter. Peretz and Coltheart (2003) consider these parallels to reflect modular, core mechanisms for human
Acknowledgments
The preparation of this paper was assisted by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
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