Elsevier

Computers in Human Behavior

Volume 59, June 2016, Pages 350-357
Computers in Human Behavior

Full length article
Player see, player do: Testing an exergame motivation model based on the influence of the self avatar

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.034Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Structural equation modeling results showed a good fit for the proposed model.

  • Player learns by experiencing the results and consequences of his exergame behavior.

  • Enjoyment partially mediates identification and exergame intention.

Abstract

While the benefits of physically immersive video games, or exergames, have witnessed much research attention, less is known about the psychosocial processes that enable exergames to be an effective digital tool. An increasing number of exergames feature in-game graphical representations (avatars) of players and, and research shows that these avatars have the potential to influence self-perceptions. This study proposes an exergame motivation model based on the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) that explores the impact of avatars on exergame players. The SCT suggests that individuals can learn through an enactive experience, and exergames appear to offer this form of learning through the presence of the player's in-game graphical representation (self avatar). 322 participants played an exergame for six sessions that feature self avatars. Structural equation modeling (SEM) results showed a good fit for the proposed exergame motivation model. Through the presence and behavior of the player's self avatar, the player learns by experiencing for himself/herself the results and consequences of his/her behavior within the exergame as he/she identifies with the character. Enjoyment was also found to partially mediate the relationship between identification with the avatar and exergame intention. The proposed exergame motivation model is likely to contribute to a deeper understanding of avatar and exergame effects and inform future research on health gaming interventions.

Introduction

While digital games for entertainment purposes have been commercial hits for over four decades, the use of these technologies for learning and serious purposes have been of great interest to researchers over the past decade (Lieberman, 2009, O'Neil et al., 2005). Such learning-based digital games, or serious games, refer to games with a purpose: the promotion of game-based learning through the combination of game technologies with health or educational content. The accessibility and ease of use of serious games have permitted these technologies to gain wider acceptance as plausible avenues for learning and behavior change. Substantial research in this field has provided strong evidence of the effectiveness of serious games, particularly in domains related to learning and health (Baranowski et al., 2008, Goldstein and Raessens, 2005).

In recent years, certain health practitioners and researchers have shifted focus to video games as a serious intervention activity that can encourage physical activity and exercise. Advancement in video game technologies have allowed for a physically immersive experience, where players can engage in the game by moving their bodies without the need for a handheld game controller. By bridging the gap between the lack of healthy behavior and the popularity of screen-based activities, these physically immersive video games (otherwise known as exergames) offer the possibility of making physical exercise a lifestyle habit. Research in the field of exergaming has been gaining momentum, and studies have shown that such digital-based interventions can be effective in promoting physical activity among adolescents (Chamberlin and Gallagher, 2008, Yang et al., 2008), child patients suffering from cerebral palsy and visual impairments (Hernandez et al., 2012, Morelli et al., 2011), and overweight children (Haddock, Siegel, & Wikin, 2009), among other populations and target groups.

In video game research, scholars have examined the impact of examining the influence of in-game factors, such as the graphical representations, or avatars, of players (Eastwick and Gardner, 2009, Li et al., 2014). Avatars can be defined by how anthropomorphic they are, or the extent to which the graphical representation looks human. Avatars that are too anthropomorphic have been found to make people feel uncomfortable and uneasy, in part due to them having an uncanny photorealistic resemblance to human beings (MacDorman, Green, Ho, & Koch, 2009). This repulsive effect has been termed the “uncanny valley” (MacDorman, 2005). However, anthropomorphic avatars which simplify human features by appearing cartoony are more appealing. Research has shown that people find these avatars to be more credible and attractive, and are more likely to choose such avatars to represent them in the virtual environment (Nowak & Rauh, 2005). On a Web site, AI-controlled avatars that were more anthropomorphic caused users to experience stronger social presence and influenced advertising effectiveness on them (Choi, Miracle, & Biocca, 2001). It is evident that the perception that people have of avatars may influence their self-perception and resultant attitudes and behavior.

Li et al. (2014) explored avatar perceptions in an exergame by investigating the influence of avatars' body size on overweight children's exercise motivation and behaviors. Support was found for the Proteus Effect, where individuals observe their virtual appearance and are influenced by them (Yee & Bailenson, 2007). Findings showed that overweight children who were assigned avatars of normal body size performed better and reported higher exercise motivation as compared to those who were assigned avatars of overweight body size. Peña and Kim (2014) found that exergame players exhibited greater physical exertion when both self and opponent had normal body weight avatars. These exergame studies, coupled with others that demonstrate the potential of avatars to influence self-perceptions in the virtual environment (Banakou and Chorianopoulos, 2010, Peck et al., 2013), illustrate the importance of examining the power of the avatar in exergames.

The goals of the current paper are twofold. First, to establish an exergame motivation model based on the influence of the self avatar on the player. While much has been ascertained regarding the benefits of exergaming, less is known regarding the psychosocial processes that enable exergames to be an effective digital tool. This paper hopes to extend knowledge in this field by developing an exergame motivation model. Second, a better understanding of the impact of avatars on the player may enable researchers to use these exergames more effectively in as digital tools, and aid game developers in coming up with more engaging exergames. To achieve these aims, a study was conducted with 322 students and findings were analyzed using structural equation modeling.

Section snippets

Conceptual framework

One theory which may shed light on the psychosocial mechanisms in exergames through the influence of the self and virtual coach avatars is the social cognitive theory (SCT; Bandura, 1989, Bandura, 1998). The SCT postulates that individuals process information selectively and employ further cognitive activity that enables them to learn successful behavior. The result of this is that when people discover behaviors that are rewarding and of value to them, they are motivated to learn and to engage

Method

A total of 322 students from two high schools in Singapore participated in the study. The sample consisted of 49.7% girls (n = 160) and 50.3% boys (n = 162). The mean age of participants was 12.37 (SD = 2.21). Prior to the program, students were asked to report their familiarity and experience with the Microsoft Xbox Kinect console, on which the exergames operated. Almost 75% of participants (n = 240) had heard of the console, while 37.9% of them (n = 122) had played exergames before. Moreover,

Results

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed via maximum likelihood estimation in AMOS 21.0. Five fit indices were used to gauge the model fit: model chi-square (χ2), relative chi-square (χ2/df), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated a good model fit (χ2 (df) = 342.93(159); χ2/df = 2.16; CFI = .96; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .06). In the CFA model, CR results ranged from .84 to .95, and

Discussion

As expected, self-presence was positively associated with identification. Enactive learning requires one to participate in the behavior to experience the consequences of performing the behavior, and the individual who sees and controls his avatar in the exergame experiences self-presence. The results suggest that the greater amount of self-presence an individual experiences, the more strongly he identifies with the avatar.

Moreover, the identification an individual has with the avatar was also

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