Full length articlePlayer see, player do: Testing an exergame motivation model based on the influence of the self avatar
Introduction
While digital games for entertainment purposes have been commercial hits for over four decades, the use of these technologies for learning and serious purposes have been of great interest to researchers over the past decade (Lieberman, 2009, O'Neil et al., 2005). Such learning-based digital games, or serious games, refer to games with a purpose: the promotion of game-based learning through the combination of game technologies with health or educational content. The accessibility and ease of use of serious games have permitted these technologies to gain wider acceptance as plausible avenues for learning and behavior change. Substantial research in this field has provided strong evidence of the effectiveness of serious games, particularly in domains related to learning and health (Baranowski et al., 2008, Goldstein and Raessens, 2005).
In recent years, certain health practitioners and researchers have shifted focus to video games as a serious intervention activity that can encourage physical activity and exercise. Advancement in video game technologies have allowed for a physically immersive experience, where players can engage in the game by moving their bodies without the need for a handheld game controller. By bridging the gap between the lack of healthy behavior and the popularity of screen-based activities, these physically immersive video games (otherwise known as exergames) offer the possibility of making physical exercise a lifestyle habit. Research in the field of exergaming has been gaining momentum, and studies have shown that such digital-based interventions can be effective in promoting physical activity among adolescents (Chamberlin and Gallagher, 2008, Yang et al., 2008), child patients suffering from cerebral palsy and visual impairments (Hernandez et al., 2012, Morelli et al., 2011), and overweight children (Haddock, Siegel, & Wikin, 2009), among other populations and target groups.
In video game research, scholars have examined the impact of examining the influence of in-game factors, such as the graphical representations, or avatars, of players (Eastwick and Gardner, 2009, Li et al., 2014). Avatars can be defined by how anthropomorphic they are, or the extent to which the graphical representation looks human. Avatars that are too anthropomorphic have been found to make people feel uncomfortable and uneasy, in part due to them having an uncanny photorealistic resemblance to human beings (MacDorman, Green, Ho, & Koch, 2009). This repulsive effect has been termed the “uncanny valley” (MacDorman, 2005). However, anthropomorphic avatars which simplify human features by appearing cartoony are more appealing. Research has shown that people find these avatars to be more credible and attractive, and are more likely to choose such avatars to represent them in the virtual environment (Nowak & Rauh, 2005). On a Web site, AI-controlled avatars that were more anthropomorphic caused users to experience stronger social presence and influenced advertising effectiveness on them (Choi, Miracle, & Biocca, 2001). It is evident that the perception that people have of avatars may influence their self-perception and resultant attitudes and behavior.
Li et al. (2014) explored avatar perceptions in an exergame by investigating the influence of avatars' body size on overweight children's exercise motivation and behaviors. Support was found for the Proteus Effect, where individuals observe their virtual appearance and are influenced by them (Yee & Bailenson, 2007). Findings showed that overweight children who were assigned avatars of normal body size performed better and reported higher exercise motivation as compared to those who were assigned avatars of overweight body size. Peña and Kim (2014) found that exergame players exhibited greater physical exertion when both self and opponent had normal body weight avatars. These exergame studies, coupled with others that demonstrate the potential of avatars to influence self-perceptions in the virtual environment (Banakou and Chorianopoulos, 2010, Peck et al., 2013), illustrate the importance of examining the power of the avatar in exergames.
The goals of the current paper are twofold. First, to establish an exergame motivation model based on the influence of the self avatar on the player. While much has been ascertained regarding the benefits of exergaming, less is known regarding the psychosocial processes that enable exergames to be an effective digital tool. This paper hopes to extend knowledge in this field by developing an exergame motivation model. Second, a better understanding of the impact of avatars on the player may enable researchers to use these exergames more effectively in as digital tools, and aid game developers in coming up with more engaging exergames. To achieve these aims, a study was conducted with 322 students and findings were analyzed using structural equation modeling.
Section snippets
Conceptual framework
One theory which may shed light on the psychosocial mechanisms in exergames through the influence of the self and virtual coach avatars is the social cognitive theory (SCT; Bandura, 1989, Bandura, 1998). The SCT postulates that individuals process information selectively and employ further cognitive activity that enables them to learn successful behavior. The result of this is that when people discover behaviors that are rewarding and of value to them, they are motivated to learn and to engage
Method
A total of 322 students from two high schools in Singapore participated in the study. The sample consisted of 49.7% girls (n = 160) and 50.3% boys (n = 162). The mean age of participants was 12.37 (SD = 2.21). Prior to the program, students were asked to report their familiarity and experience with the Microsoft Xbox Kinect console, on which the exergames operated. Almost 75% of participants (n = 240) had heard of the console, while 37.9% of them (n = 122) had played exergames before. Moreover,
Results
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed via maximum likelihood estimation in AMOS 21.0. Five fit indices were used to gauge the model fit: model chi-square (χ2), relative chi-square (χ2/df), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated a good model fit (χ2 (df) = 342.93(159); χ2/df = 2.16; CFI = .96; TLI = .95; RMSEA = .06). In the CFA model, CR results ranged from .84 to .95, and
Discussion
As expected, self-presence was positively associated with identification. Enactive learning requires one to participate in the behavior to experience the consequences of performing the behavior, and the individual who sees and controls his avatar in the exergame experiences self-presence. The results suggest that the greater amount of self-presence an individual experiences, the more strongly he identifies with the avatar.
Moreover, the identification an individual has with the avatar was also
References (70)
- et al.
EGameFlow: a scale to measure learners' enjoyment of e-learning games
Computers & Education
(2009) - et al.
The efficacy of exergames incorporated physical education lessons in influencing drivers of physical activity: a comparison of children and pre-adolescents
Psychology of Sport and Exercise
(2012) - et al.
Too real for comfort? Uncanny responses to computer generated faces
Computers in Human Behavior
(2009) - et al.
Putting yourself in the skin of a black avatar reduces implicit racial bias
Consciousness and Cognition
(2013) - et al.
Increasing exergame physical activity through self and opponent avatar appearance
Computers in Human Behavior
(2014) - et al.
The effects of Avatars' gender and appearance on social behavior in online 3D virtual worlds
Virtual Worlds Research
(2010) The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology
(1986)Human agency in social cognitive theory
American Psychologist
(1989)Health promotion from the perspective of social cognitive theory
Psychology & Health
(1998)Social cognitive theory of mass communication
Media Psychology
(2001)