The effects of competition and competitiveness upon intrinsic motivation in exergames
Highlights
► Investigated the game playing motivation using Self-Determination Theory. ► Examined the effects of competition upon intrinsic motivation in exergame context. ► Competition was tested both as a contextual and an individual trait. ► Competition provides positive experiences to competitive individuals. ► Competition factors do not benefit individuals who are less competitive.
Introduction
Competition is one of the main elements of video games. As most games are goal directed, competitive situations or competition factors are commonly present in game-play contexts (Frederick-Recascino & Schuster-Smith, 2003). Vorderer, Klimmt, and Ritterfeld (2004) argued that, unlike traditional media users, video game users are driven by competition and achievement. Empirical evidence shows that players experience stronger enjoyment when competition factors are present in game contexts (Vorderer, Hartmann, & Klimmt, 2003). Further, the level of competition also affects players’ preferences for the games they choose (Gajadhar et al., 2008, Williams and Clippinger, 2002).
What has been less studied in video game research is the role of individual differences with regard to competitive contexts. Although some studies have investigated gender differences in preferences for competitive games (Chan, 2008; Lucas & Sherry, 2004), the current literature does not clearly answer how competition affects game-play motivations differently in various populations. For example, it is not clear if individuals with a competitive disposition would enjoy competitive games more than those who are less competitive. Moreover, research has yet to explore the consequences of playing a game in a competitive context for players who do not enjoy competition. In this regard, the present study explores how competition as a contextual factor influences players’ experiences depending upon individuals’ competitive dispositions.
Exergames (exercise video games) provide an interesting venue to test the role of competition for various reasons. First, exergames are fairly easy to play even for the first-time players. Prior knowledge or skills in using a game controller are unnecessary, especially for exercise games such as Nintendo Wii, as players use their bodies instead of a complicated controller to play the game. For this reason, the exergame may provide an effective way to examine the true effects of competition while not being heavily affected by game-play skills or history. Additionally, competition in sports and exercise plays a vital role in increasing intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). As exergames are known as a tool for increasing exercise motivation (Mhurchu et al., 2008, Rankin et al., 2008, Ridley and Olds, 2001, Song et al., 2011, Tan et al., 2002, Unnithan et al., 2006, Yang et al., 2008), further investigations on competition may reveal effective strategies for facilitating optimal exergame experiences. Thus, the current study examines how competition factors influence exergame players’ motivations for engaging in exergame experiences.
Section snippets
Theoretical framework: Competition and intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation, defined as enjoyment of or interest in an activity for its own sake (Deci & Ryan, 1985), has been known to be one of the strongest determinants of exercise adherence (Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997). As such, scholars have rigorously examined ways to increase intrinsic motivation for more effective exercise behaviors.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), a sub theory of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), explains how external factors such as competition affect
Participants
The experiment was a 2 (Competitive exercise context: Competition vs. Non-competition) × 2 (Individual competitiveness: High vs. Low) between-subjects design. Participants were recruited from a large public Midwestern university in the US, and a total of 72 undergraduate students (36 men and 36 women) participated in the study. Individuals were divided into two competitive groups, either high or low, based on the median split of reported competitiveness scores of individuals. Half of each group
Results
First, a manipulation check was conducted. A t-test indicated that participants assigned to the competition condition (M = 8.08, SD = 1.89) reported a significantly higher level of perceived competition during the experiment, t(70) = 1.78, p < .05, compared to those who were in the non-competition condition (M = 7.17, SD = 2.40). Further, no significant difference in expected competence in playing the game was observed, F(1, 68) = .06, ns.
A series of ANOVAs were conducted to examine interaction effects that
Overall findings
How competition affects intrinsic motivation in game playing has not been well studied. The present study is the one of the first to empirically test, using SDT theory, the role of competition on the motivational pull of video games. Although a few recent studies have shown how autonomy, competence, and relatedness—needs suggested by SDT—affect game-play motivation and engagement (Peng et al., 2012, Ryan et al., 2006), no investigation has focused on the role of competition. In sports and
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by WCU (World Class University) program through the National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Grant No. R31-2008-000-10062-0).
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