The role of spatial ability in learning from instructional animations – Evidence for an ability-as-compensator hypothesis

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.042Get rights and content

Abstract

In two experiments, the role of spatial ability in learning from an instructional animation versus a series of static pictures was studied. In both experiments, a statistical interaction of spatial ability and type of visualization was obtained: Low-spatial ability students showed poor learning outcome when learning from pictures while high-spatial students did not; when learning from animation, however, learning outcome was independent from spatial ability. The results are in line with an ability-as-compensator hypothesis which states that constructing mental animations from non-dynamic materials needs spatial ability; with animated learning materials, however, spatial ability is not required. No overall differences between static pictures and animation were found.

Introduction

In recent years, the role of individual differences on learning with visual representations has been more and more focused on. As overall comparisons between animations and static pictures (cp. Höffler and Leutner, 2007, Tversky et al., 2002) did not lead to consistent results, it seems plausible that different conditions moderate the efficacy of static or dynamic representations, for example the role of animation (decorational versus representational, cp. Höffler & Leutner, 2007), the task that is to be learned (Ayres, Marcus, Chan, & Qian, 2008), or the course topic. Likewise, individual differences can account for different learning results with animations or static pictures. For instance, such an effect is well documented for prior knowledge (Kalyuga, 2007). Another important individual difference which plays a role in learning with representations is spatial ability. In a very recent review, Höffler (2010) showed the significant influence of spatial ability and its sub-dimensions on the processing of visualizations and identified some moderators of this effect. As spatial ability can be defined as the ability to establish and retain an internal representation (a mental model) of a perceived scene in such as way that a mental manipulation is possible (Carroll, 1993, Höffler, 2010), it seems obvious that this ability might make a difference when handling either static or dynamic visualizations. In case of animations, a ‘ready-made’ model is presented which may be easily transferred into a dynamic mental model even by learners with low spatial ability. In case of series of static pictures, different scenes must be connected, and different static elements must be mentally manipulated in order to establish a dynamic mental model; a highly developed spatial ability should help accomplish this task. As a competing hypothesis, animations might be especially difficult to process for learners with low spatial ability because of the transitivity of animations.

Therefore, the present paper investigates the role of spatial ability when learning from an instructional animation versus a series of static pictures. The results of two experiments are reported. Furthermore, we examine different aspects of spatial ability and discuss the results in relation to divergent results of other authors.

Section snippets

Animations versus static pictures

Much research has been conducted in recent years on the question of whether dynamic animations or static pictures are superior for learning. Many authors reported benefits of animations (e.g., Catrambone and Seay, 2002, Spotts and Dwyer, 1996, Yang et al., 2003), while many others did not (e.g., Lewalter, 2003, Mayer et al., 2005, Swezey, 1991). In a review (Bétrancourt and Tversky, 2000, Tversky et al., 2002), the authors showed that very often animations had no learning advantages over static

Research questions and hypotheses

This study aimed at investigating the specific role of spatial ability on learning with dynamic as well as non-dynamic visualizations. With more empirical evidence supporting the ability-as-compensator hypothesis, we hypothesized to find a compensator role of spatial ability in learning from animations versus static pictures, that is, learners with low spatial ability should be supported by animations in their learning process, or, respectively, a high spatial ability should support a learner

Experiment 1

In Experiment 1, students with low prior knowledge who scored high and low on the Paper Folding test learned about the role of surfactants during the washing process.

Results and discussion

First of all, it was obtained that participants did not significantly differ between groups as to their spatial ability or pre-test result. Data were analyzed within the General Linear Model

Experiment 2

Experiment 2 was conducted in order to replicate the findings of Experiment 1 with a larger sample size from another population, that is, students at school. This validating proceeding seemed appropriate as the respective topic was part of the curriculum of the participating schools. Furthermore, besides spatial-visualization ability, the role of spatial-relations ability in learning from animations was to be studied.

Results and discussion

Again, at first it was assured that participants did not significantly differ between groups as to their spatial ability or pre-test results. Data were analyzed within the General Linear Model, and a sequential decomposition of variance (SPSS procedure GLM, option SSTYPE 1) was applied with post-test achievement as the dependent variable. As independent variables two continuous measures that were used for reducing residual variance only were specified first in the SPSS-design statement (grades

General discussion

The present set of experiments suggests that spatial ability – or, more precisely, spatial-visualization ability – plays a crucial, but also rather specific role in learning with animations and static pictures. In previous studies, often no interaction of spatial ability and type of visualization were found (e.g., Hegarty et al., 2003, Narayanan and Hegarty, 2002). In the present study, however, an interaction was obtained that is in line with the spatial-ability-as-compensator hypothesis: High

References (58)

  • J. Sweller

    Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design

    Learning and Instruction

    (1994)
  • B. Tversky et al.

    Animation: can it facilitate?

    International Journal of Human–Computer Studies

    (2002)
  • P. Ayres et al.

    Learning hand manipulative tasks: When instructional animations are superior to equivalent static representations

    Computers in Human Behavior

    (2008)
  • R.M. Baron et al.

    The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychology research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (1986)
  • M. Bétrancourt et al.

    Effect of computer animation on users’ performance. A review

    Travail-Humain

    (2000)
  • T. Blake

    Motion in instructional media: Some subject-display mode interactions

    Perceptual and Motor Skills

    (1977)
  • R. Brünken et al.

    Räumliches Vorstellungsvermögen und Lernen mit Multimedia [Spatial ability and learning with multimedia]

  • J.B. Carroll

    Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies

    (1993)
  • R. Catrambone et al.

    Using animation to help students learn computer algorithms

    Human Factors

    (2002)
  • J. Cohen

    The cost of dichotomization

    Applied Psychological Measurement

    (1983)
  • J. DeCoster et al.

    A conceptual and empirical examination of justifications for dichotomization

    Psychological Methods

    (2009)
  • J. Eliot et al.

    Different dimensions of spatial ability

    Studies in Science Education

    (1981)
  • R.B. Ekstrom et al.

    Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests

    (1976)
  • F. Faul et al.

    G∗Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences

    Behavior Research Methods

    (2007)
  • T.A. Hays

    Spatial abilities and the effects of computer animation on short-term and long-term comprehension

    Journal of Educational Computing Research

    (1996)
  • M. Hegarty

    Multimedia learning about physical systems

  • M. Hegarty et al.

    Spatial abilities, working memory and mechanical reasoning

  • M. Hegarty et al.

    Effects of knowledge and spatial ability on learning from animation

  • M. Hegarty et al.

    The roles of mental animations and external animations in understanding mechanical systems

    Cognition and Instruction

    (2003)
  • Cited by (117)

    • Learning neuroscience: Investigating influences of notetaking materials and individual differences

      2023, Learning and Individual Differences
      Citation Excerpt :

      Next, we investigated the interactions between diagram and cognitive skill. It is standard practice to dichotomize or categorize cognitive skills to examine their interaction with diagram presence (Boucheix & Schneider, 2009; Hannafin et al., 2008; Hegarty et al., 2003; Hegarty & Just, 1993; Hegarty & Kriz, 2008; Hegarty & Sims, 1994; Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997; Hoffler & Leutner, 2011; Isaak & Just, 1995; Lee, 2007). Nevertheless, we offer an analysis of the model when spatial and verbal reasoning are left continuous, as it is statistical best practice not to dichotomize continuous variables (e.g., Irwin & McClelland, 2003).

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text