Oxidized Carbo-Iron causes reduced reproduction and lower tolerance of juveniles in the amphipod Hyalella azteca
Introduction
Groundwater pollution is among the most severe environmental challenges (Dimitriou et al., 2008, Fatta et al., 2002). Contamination may arise from a multitude of anthropogenic activities, which include landfills, industrial effluents or accidental spillage (Rail, 1989). Groundwater aquifers can provide a habitat for a high diversity of micro- and macroorganisms (among them various crustaceans) including many endemic species (Danielopol and Griebler, 2008, Hahn and Fuchs, 2009). Thus, the protection and remediation of groundwater bodies is of high importance, but also represents a scientific challenge considering the variety of contaminants. In this context, the use of nanoscaled zerovalent iron (nFe0) for remediation of contaminated groundwater is a promising technique (Xu et al., 2012). For efficient groundwater treatment with nFe0, particles should have a certain mobility to build a broad reactive barrier in the aquifer. Yet, mobility of nFe0 in the receiving medium is impeded by quick agglomeration and sedimentation (Johnson et al., 2013, Yin et al., 2012). To improve mobility and maintain reactivity, Carbo-Iron, a nanocomposite of zerovalent iron nanoparticles and activated carbon was developed (Bleyl et al., 2012, Mackenzie et al., 2012), which is a promising alternative to nFe0. For in situ groundwater remediation, several thousand L of a suspension with a Carbo-Iron concentration in the g/L range have to be applied into the aquifer (Mackenzie et al., 2016).
As so far very few ecotoxicity data are available for Carbo-Iron (Weil et al., 2015), potential risks for aquatic ecosystems deserve further investigation. In ecotoxicity testing, semi-static or flow-through test systems are often employed to overcome sedimentation behavior of particles in suspension and increase the probability of the relevant species to interact with the particles, recently especially focused on experiments with nanoparticles (Bundschuh et al., 2012, Seitz et al., 2013). These experimental designs simulate the continuous release of particles via point sources such as wastewater treatment plant effluents. However, sediments represent a sink for particles in suspension (Baun et al., 2008, Poynton et al., 2013). Therefore, ecotoxicity tests with sediment-dwelling organisms are of high relevance for an estimation of environmental risk of Carbo-Iron. Additionally, to minimize the risk that a remediation of an aquifer with Carbo-Iron deteriorates the conditions for groundwater organisms, information on potential effects on such organisms is necessary. For these reasons, the benthic amphipod Hyalella azteca was chosen as test organism in the present study as a surrogate species for amphipods inhabiting groundwater. In a study on risk assessment of chemical stressors in groundwater, Schäfers et al. (2001) recommended to place special emphasis on tests with higher crustaceans (e.g. amphipods). Surface water-inhabiting higher crustaceans show comparable sensitivity as related groundwater species (Schäfers et al., 2001). H. azteca are living on the surface of and in the upper few mm of the sediment (Doig and Liber, 2010).
Since ingestion of Carbo-Iron was supposed to be the major route of uptake, the presence of Carbo-Iron particles on and in H. azteca was evaluated in a 10-d acute toxicity test in addition to the standard test endpoints survival and growth (US EPA, 2000). The impact of Carbo-Iron on ingestion rates of leaves was investigated during a 7-d exposure. Potential chronic toxicity of Carbo-Iron was studied in a 42-d exposure including reproduction of H. azteca as an endpoint (US EPA, 2000). Assuming a higher sensitivity of juveniles released from adults exposed to higher Carbo-Iron concentrations, as has been shown for nano TiO2 (Bundschuh et al., 2012), the potential impact of Carbo-Iron on amphipod offspring was investigated in an additional chronic experiment.
Section snippets
Culture of Hyalella azteca
H. azteca were obtained in 2002 from Dresden University of Technology. They were kept at 20–25 °C and 16:8 h light:dark in glass tanks with quartz sand and approximately 5 L culture medium according to Borgmann (1996) with CaCl2 (110.98 mg/L), MgSO4 (30.09 mg/L), NaHCO3 (84.01 mg/L), KCl (3.72 mg/L) and NaBr (1.03 mg/L). The amphipods were fed twice per week with TetraMin® flakes ad libitum, the culture medium was exchanged every other week.
Prior to each experiment, a synchronized culture was
Particle characteristics
In the stock suspensions, measured particle diameters were between 322 ± 6 nm and 395 ± 12 nm (Fig. 2; detailed results are shown in Table S1–S3). In all samples from control and dispersant control, no particles <500 nm were detected. Test suspensions at concentrations ≥12.5 mg/L Carbo-Iron were stable for 3 d and measured diameters were between 315.1 ± 9 nm and 575 ± 35 nm. As a general trend the polydispersity index was increasing over time. The main reason for this is most likely the precipitation of
Funding sources
The present work was funded by the German Ministry of Education and Research (project numbers 0X30082A, B, C and F). The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors.
Ethical statement
The present manuscript is not under consideration by any other journal. All authors have approved the current version of the manuscript. The study did not involve human subjects or vertebrate animals.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Steffen Bleyl for the review of this manuscript and valuable input. The present work was funded by the German Ministry of Education and Research (project numbers 03X0082A, B, C and F). The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors.
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