The use of alfalfa, Medicago sativa as a natural carotenoid source in diets of goldfish, Carassius auratus
Introduction
The growing interest in aquarium fish has resulted in steady increase in aquarium fish trade globally. Today, with a turnover of US $ 9 billion a year and an annual growth of 8%, production of ornamental fish is an important business activity as well as one of the most popular hobbies in the world. It is thought that this sector can contribute to the economic development in underdeveloped countries, especially in the tropics. Goldfish are among the most popular fish and have a high market value in the ornamental fish trade (Lee and Newman, 1997). In the US alone, trade volume of goldfish is about US $ 9 million. It is well known that in addition to body shape, fin shape and size, skin pigmentation is one of the most important quality criteria setting the market value of goldfish (Paripatananont et al., 1999, Lovell, 2000, Gouveia et al., 2003). To achieve consumer acceptance and an optimum price, goldfish must appeal to the eye with its reddish-orange pigmentation. This colour is derived from the deposition of carotenoids in its tissue (Simpson et al., 1981). The carotenoids are also vital nutrients for healthy growth, metabolism, and reproduction as well as colour (Miki, 1991). Since fish, like other animals, are not able to perform denovo synthesis of carotenoids (Goodwin, 1984), they have to obtain them from dietary sources.
Goldfish are generally reared in eutrophic ponds, in which Chlorophyta and Cyanobacteria constitute the dominant flora. As these food sources are rich in carotenoids, goldfish cultured in such environments exhibit an excellent intensive colouring. However, this colouration cannot be achieved under intensive rearing conditions, if carotenoid sources are not added into the fish diets.
Skin pigmentation of goldfish has been accomplished by supplementing their diets with synthetic or extracted carotenoids, such as zeaxanthin, lutein or astaxanthin (Hata and Hata, 1971, Matsuno et al., 1981, Ohkubo et al., 1999, Paripatananont et al., 1999). However, recent efforts have focused on natural compounds as alternative to synthetic carotenoids because of concerns about the use of synthetic additives and their high cost. From natural sources containing carotenoids, the red yeast, Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (Xu et al., 2006), Spirulina (Kiriratnikom et al., 2005), Chlorella vulgaris, Haematococcus pluvialis and Arthrospira maxima (Gouveia et al., 2003) have been tested on pigmentation of goldfish. Alfalfa is an inexpensive animal feed rich in minerals, vitamins, carotenoids, and protein with a balanced amino acid profile. Alfalfa meal contains 400–500 mg total carotenoids/kg with the majority being xanthophylls, such as lutein and zeaxanthin (Scott et al., 1968), each of which has an important role in pigmentation of goldfish (Hata and Hata, 1972, Matsuno et al., 1981, Ohkubo et al., 1999). Alfalfa has been tested as a protein source in some fish species (Olvera-Novoa et al., 1990, Yousif et al., 1994, Ali et al., 2003, Chatzifotis et al., 2006), excluding goldfish. As a natural carotenoid source, alfalfa has been shown to be utilized in pigmentation of the egg yolk of chickens (Fletcher and Papa, 1985). However, nothing has been reported on its use as a pigment source for goldfish or other aquatic animals, except in freshwater crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus (Harpaz et al., 1998).
The present study was designed to determine (1) the most suitable level of alfalfa meal inclusion in the diet to achieve the best pigmentation in goldfish, (2) its effects on growth, feed utilization and survival of the fish, and (3) its potential as an alternative natural carotenoid source to a synthetic apo-ester in goldfish diets.
Section snippets
Experimental design
This study was carried out in an indoor system. A red variety of goldfish, Carassius auratus was obtained from a local commercial breeder, kept under quarantine conditions for three weeks, and then acclimatized to the experimental conditions for two weeks before the experiment. During this period, the fish were fed a basal diet (or control diet). The fish with the same colour hue, initial weights of 9–12 g and about 8 months ages were selected from the general population. Twenty four goldfish
3.1 Growth performance, feed conversion ratio and survival
All fish grew normally, and no specific signs of disease were observed. All diets were accepted equally well by the fish. Fish weight increased 2–2.5 fold at the end of the feeding trial of 60 days. Growth and feed utilization in the fish were adversely affected at the higher levels of dietary alfalfa (Table 2). For example, fish fed diets containing 25 and 40% alfalfa meal exhibited the poorest growth (P < 0.05) at the end of the feeding trial. In fact, fish fed diets containing 40% alfalfa meal
Discussion
The results of the present study indicate that the inclusion of 25% and higher dietary alfalfa meal reduced growth in goldfish at the end of a rearing period of 60 days. The effect of alfalfa on growth of goldfish has not been reported, although it has been for some other fish species with variable results. The critical levels of dietary alfalfa which retarded growth were determined as 5% for Oreochromis aureus (Yousif et al., 1994), 7% for Diplodus puntazzo (Chatzifotis et al., 2006) and 10%
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Resource Fund of the University of Cukurova, (Turkey) for their financial support (with SÜF 2002 BAP18) of the experiment and Metin Kumlu and Mehmet Yücel for kindly revising the English of this paper.
References (33)
- et al.
Effect of dietary a cellulose levels on the juvenile tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus
Aquaculture
(1990) - et al.
Utilization and yolk colouring capability of dietary xanthophylls from yellow corn, corn gluten meal, alfalfa, and coastal bermudagrass
Poultry Sci.
(1985) - et al.
Antinutritional factors present in plant-derived alternate fish feed ingredients and their effects in fish
Aquaculture
(2001) - et al.
Carotenoids and their metabolism in the goldfish Carassius auratus (Hibuna)
Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
(1999) - et al.
The use of alfalfa leaf protein concentrates as a protein source in diets for tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)
Aquaculture
(1990) - et al.
Studies of egg yolk pigmentation
Poultry Sci.
(1968) - et al.
Carotenoids in fish feed
- et al.
Pigmentation of salmonids—genetical variation in carotenoid deposition in rainbow trout
Aquaculture
(1984) - et al.
Evalutation of dehydrated alfalfa and salt bush (Atriplex) leaves in diets for tilapia (Oreochromis aureus L.)
Aquaculture
(1994) - et al.
Effect of feeding different levels of wheat bran on the growth performance and body composition of Oreochromis niloticus
Agribiol. Res.
(1996)
Effect of feeding different levels of alfalfa meal on the growth performance and body composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings
Asian Fish. Sci.
Official methods of analysis
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
Fishmeal replacement by alfalfa protein concentrate in sharp snout sea bream Diplodus puntazzo
Fish. Sci.
Pilot plant production of an edible alfalfa protein concentration
J. Food Sci.
Colouring ornamental fish (Cyprinus carpio and Carassius auratus) with microalgal biomass
Aquac. Nutr.
Cited by (49)
Marine yeast Rhodotorula paludigena VA 242 a pigment enhancing feed additive for the Ornamental Fish Koi Carp
2024, Aquaculture and FisheriesCitation Excerpt :Although, synthetic carotenoids and pigments are commercially available as colour enhancing feed additives, their usage is limited due to high cost and poor uptake levels, consumer awareness about safety and environmental impacts. It has been reported that pigments from Spirulina (Kiriratnikom et al., 2005), Red yeast, Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (Xu et al., 2006), Alfalfa, Medicago sativa (Yanar et al., 2008) marigold, Tageteserecta (Vanegas-Espinoza et al., 2011) paprika (Yilmaz et al., 2013) etc. are prospective natural sources of carotenoids in fish (Sathyaruban et al., 2021). Carotenoids can also be produced by numerous microorganisms such as filamentous fungi, yeasts, bacteria and algae (Mussagy et al., 2019).
Evaluation of dietary oleoresins on the enhancement of skin coloration and growth in the marine ornamental clown fish, Amphiprion ocellaris (Cuvier, 1830)
2020, AquacultureCitation Excerpt :Moreover, there is increasing consumer awareness about safety and environmental impacts of synthetic pigments. It was reported that pigments from the natural sources such as Spirulina (Kiriratnikom et al., 2005), red yeast, Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous (Xu et al., 2006), Alfalfa, Medicago sativa (Yanar et al., 2008) and marigold, Tagetes erecta (Villar-Martinez et al., 2013) are prospective sources of carotenoids in fish. However, it is important to identify alternate sources of natural carotenoids in order to develop novel diets for fish having multiple health benefits along with better colour imparting potential as well as to reduce the usage and evade the adverse effects of synthetic pigments.
Effect of nettle (Urtica spp.), marigold (Tagetes erecta), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) extracts and synthetic xanthophyll (zeaxanthin) carotenoid supplementations into diets on skin pigmentation and growth parameters of electric yellow cichlid (Labidochromis caeruleus)
2020, AquacultureCitation Excerpt :Including also a control treatment without any supplementations, there were 5 experimental groups. Since the plant extracts used as carotenoid source in ornamental fish rations for the first time, total carotenoid quantities were kept as high and supplemented to diets as to have 150 mg kg−1 based on the addition of 40% alfalfa meal in the study reported by Yanar et al. (2008). Moisture, crude protein, crude lipid, crude fiber, ash, nitrogen free extract and total carotenoid quantities of the diet ingredients were analyzed.