Nutrients, phytoplankton and harmful algal blooms in shrimp ponds: a review with special reference to the situation in the Gulf of California

doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00509-4

Aquaculture

Volume 219, Issues 1–4, 2 April 2003, Pages 317-336

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00509-4 Get rights and content

Abstract

The present work is a first attempt to document the latest reports on the occurrence of algal blooms in shrimp farm ponds worldwide. Particular emphasis is placed on discussing the relation of algal blooms with nutrients, with special reference to the northwest of Mexico. Typically, shrimp pond waters are enriched with organic matter and nutrients whose concentrations depend mostly on the management (i.e. higher stocking densities, water use, food and fertilizers). Generally, more intensive culture systems produce higher loads of nutrients in their discharge (e.g. N and P). Nitrogen and P concentrations vary in pond waters; N/P ratio ranges from 1.1 to 67 with values being more frequently between 1.1 and 6.8. Such variations are closely related with the cycling and supply of nutrients in the ponds. In shrimp farms located in NW Mexico, phytoplankton abundance varies widely, having a higher abundance in advanced stages of the culture cycle. In the most common pond types (intensive and semi-intensive), Synechocystis diplococcus (cyanobacteria) was the dominant species (>88.9%), followed by Peridinium trochoideum (Scrippsiella trochoidea) and eventually Prorocentrum minimum and Gymnodinium spp. (dinoflagellates). The numerous occurrences of large blooms of dinoflagellates and other functional groups such as cyanobacteria, diatoms, chlorophytes and flagellates mean economic losses for farm industry on account of shrimp mortality or growth diminution due to poisoning, anoxic or mucus production effects, in which shrimp were mortality provoked in different regions: in China, the dinoflagellates Alexandrium tamarense (Gonyaulax tamarensis) and Gymnodinium; in Malaysia, the raphidophyte Hornellia (Chattonella) and the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum; in Vietnam, the diatom Nitzchia navis-varingica; in Ecuador, the dinoflagellate Gyrodinium instriatum; and in NW Mexico the cyanobacteria S. diplococcus, Schizothrix calcicola, and the dinoflagellates P. minimum, and lastly Gymnodinium catenatum from supply waters.

Introduction

In tropical and subtropical coastal areas worldwide, no economical activity has evolved as quickly as shrimp farming in the last 15 years. However, such an enormous development has been accompanied by strong controversies on the environmental, economic and social impacts of shrimp farming. Mexico, as well as several nations from Asia and Latin America, has experienced an increased expansion that concerns governmental and non-governmental organizations (Páez-Osuna, 2001a).

Shrimp farming can produce diverse environmental impacts depending on several factors: (a) location of farms; (b) management and use of technology during pond operation; (c) culture surface and scale of production; and (d) depurative capacity of receiving water body. Some effects that can be pointed out are impairment of water quality in receiving water bodies that can result in oxygen depletion, light penetration is diminished because of suspended solids, a hypernutrification that turns into changes of benthic macrofauna and eutrophication of water bodies (Páez-Osuna, 2001b). This paper is a review on the occurrence of nutrients and their relation with the abundance and composition of phytoplankton communities, primary production and algal blooms in shrimp farm pond waters. Additional information is provided in relation with the presence of nutrients in adjacent water bodies that supply and receive water to and from shrimp ponds. Also, phytoplankton species that produce toxic effects are considered. Finally, levels and stoichiometry of nutrients in pond waters as causative agents of change in the structure of phytoplankton communities are discussed.

Section snippets

Study area

The northwest Mexico is situated in the subtropical Pacific subzone, which extends from Baja California southward to about 16° north latitude (Brusca and Wallerstein, 1979; Fig. 1). The presence of many rivers with small drainage basins and a coast climate semi-arid to sub-humid, becoming humid to southeast, are characteristic of this zone (Lankford, 1977). An important feature of the NW coast of Mexico is the presence of numerous coastal lagoons, e.g. from the Colorado River in Sonora to San

Nutrients and stoichiometric ratio in shrimp pond waters

Generally, waters and effluents from shrimp ponds are enriched with suspended solids, organic matter and nutrients (Table 1); concentrations depend mainly on the management (Páez-Osuna, 2001b). In extensive farms, wastes from ponds are scarce, while at semi-intensive farms intermediate loads are discharged. It is clear that depending on the degree of intensity (i.e. stocking density, water use, food and fertilizers), a higher waste load is produced, as well as nitrogen and phosphorus. In

Coastal waters as sources of phytoplankton for shrimp ponds

In most shrimp farms from the Gulf of California, coastal waters are used for supplying shrimp ponds; in some cases water is pumped directly from the coast and in other cases indirectly through coastal lagoons. In the Gulf of California, the most abundant and diverse groups of the phytoplankton are diatoms (415 species) and dinoflagellates (270 species) Licea et al., 1995, Moreno et al., 1996.

Frequently, biomass of small producers is higher than biomass represented by bigger species. In the

Phytoplankton in shrimp ponds

Microalgae from water bodies that supply water are founding the early stages in shrimp farm ponds. Phytoplankton composition and abundance in supply water is modified in shrimp ponds. In some culturing systems, where salinity decreases because of the mixing with fresh water from rivers, there are ponds where diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes and dinoflagellates dominate, depending on several environmental factors (e.g. light, salinity, temperature and nutrient levels). The occurrence of some

Harmful algal blooms in shrimp ponds

In semi-intensive shrimp ponds, the relation between phytoplankton quality and shrimp development has been demonstrated (Dall et al., 1990). However, since phytoplankton growth is enhanced by the addition of fertilizers, dinoflagellate blooms also develop. In some cases, dinoflagellate blooms are harmless to shrimp; such is the case of the formation of Peridinum balechii red tides, which did not result in a loss of shrimp production (Delgado et al., 1996). In other cases, algal blooms can

Concluding remarks

1.
Physicochemical conditions that originate algal blooms in shrimp ponds mainly depend on fertilization, feeding rate and food composition. The objective of pond fertilization is to produce diatom and phytoflagellate blooms; however, inadequate management, contamination and climatic conditions can trigger undesired blooms that lead to a delay in shrimp growth and massive mortality that decreases production.
2.
Nutrients that are supplied to shrimp ponds have a direct effect on phytoplankton

Acknowledgements

CONACyT thought Project 0625-N9110 provided financial support. The first author is under scholarship from CONACyT 89906. The authors thank Jorge Ruelas Inzunza for English review of the original manuscript and Sergio Escutia for the information and image about update shrimp mortality in ponds. We also thank Clara Ramı́rez Jáuregui and Jahn Throndsen for their collaboration in facilitating the bibliography, and Germán Ramı́rez Reséndiz for elaborating figures.

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ReviewNutrients, phytoplankton and harmful algal blooms in shrimp ponds: a review with special reference to the situation in the Gulf of California

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Study area

Nutrients and stoichiometric ratio in shrimp pond waters

Coastal waters as sources of phytoplankton for shrimp ponds

Phytoplankton in shrimp ponds

Harmful algal blooms in shrimp ponds

Concluding remarks

Acknowledgements

Mar. Pollut. Bull.

Aquaculture

Toxicon

Cont. Shelf Res.

Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci.

J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.

Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci.

Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci.

Mar. Pollut. Bull.

Environ. Pollut.

Mar. Pollut. Bull.

Mar. Pollut. Bull.

Deep-Sea Res.

Ecol. Model.

Deep-Sea Res. I

Pelagic process in extensive shrimp ponds of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Aquaculture

Biomass and feeding activity of phagotrophic mixotrophs in the northwestern Black Sea during the summer 1995

Hydrobiologia

Water Quality Management and Aeration in Shrimp Farming. Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Departmental Series No. 2

Liming and fertilization of brackishwater shrimp ponds

J. Appl. Aquac.

A nutrient budget of some intensive marine shrimp ponds in Thailand

Aquac. Fish. Manage.

Zoogeographic patterns of idoteid isopods in the Northeast Pacific with a review of shallow water zoogeography for the region

Bull. Biol. Soc. Wash.

Fitoplancton en tres ecosistemas de manglar de la bahı́a d eLa Paz, B.C.S. (México). I Diatomeas

An. Inst. Cienc. Mar Limnol. Univ. Nal. Autón. México

Fitoplancton en tres ecosistemas de manglar de la bahı́a de La Paz, B.C.S., México. II Producción primaria bruta, neta y respiración

An. Inst. Cienc. Mar Limnol., Univ. Nal. Autón. México

Brackish-Water Phytoplankton on the Flemish Lowland

Pesquerı́as de las lagunas litorales de México

Taxonomy of cyanobacteria

An ecological study of red tides in the east China Sea

Descripción de la dinámica metabólica de productores primarios (fitoplancton y manglar) en la laguna costera “La Lechuguilla”, Ahome, Sinaloa, México

Marine Pollution

Microalgas dañinas en estanques de cultivo de camarón

Presencia de Prorocentrum minimum (Pav.) Schiller en estanques para cultivo de camarón

Cienc. Mar, UAS

Mareas rojas durante 1977 en la bahı́a de Mazatlán, Sinaloa, México

Cienc. Mar, UAS

Florecimientos de microalgas nocivas en estanques para cultivo semi-intensivo de camarón en México

Rev. Latinoam. Microbiol.

Variación y abundancia del fitoplancton de estanques semi-intensivos e intensivos para el cultivo de camarón en Sinaloa

Variación diurna del fitoplancton y los factores abióticos en un estanque camaronı́cola salobre en el Sur de Sinaloa, México

Hidrobiológica

Red tides in Mexico: a review

Food and feeding

Red tide in shrimp culture ponds in Cuba

Rev. Cuba. Investig. Pesq.

Phytoplankton production and seasonal biomass of seagrass, Ruppia maritima L. in a tropical Mexican lagoon with an ephemeral inlet

Estuaries

Mangrove ecology, aquatic primary productivity, and fish community dynamics in the Teacapán–Agua Brava Lagoon-estuarine System (Mexican Pacific)

Estuaries

Balance de carbono en un ecosistema lagunar estuarino de boca efı́mera de la costa noroccidental de México (Estero del Verde, Sinaloa)

Checklist of marine phytoplankton in a subtropical lagoon system in Baja California Sur México, from 1980 to 1989

Estructura de las asociaciones microfitoplanctónicas en la región central del Golfo de California en el otoño de 1986

Cienc. Mar.

Review
Nutrients, phytoplankton and harmful algal blooms in shrimp ponds: a review with special reference to the situation in the Gulf of California